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Sociology of Education in Canada Sociology of Education in Canada Sociology of Education in Canada DR. KAREN L. ROBSON Sociology of Education in Canada by Dr. Karen L. Robson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Contents Preface xi Acknowledgements xv Disclaimer xvii 1. Introduction Introduction to the Sociology of Education 2 A Case Study of a Major Education-Related News Item in Canada 3 Using the Sociology of Education to Help Understand the Events in Attawapiskat 7 Chapter Summary 12 1 2. Theories in the Sociology of Education Introduction 16 Terminology 18 Agency and Structure 18 Ontology and Epistemology 19 Structural Functionalism 20 Phenomenology 32 Cultural Reproduction Theory 33 Social Mobility Approaches 40 Bronfenbrenner and Ecological Systems Theory 41 Feminist Approaches 44 Critical Race Theory 45 Chapter Summary 49 15 3. A Historical Overview of Education in Canada Introduction 56 New France and Lower Canada 1600s–1830s 56 Upper Canada 1790s–1850s 57 Lower Canada 1830s–1850s 59 Upper Canada 1850 61 Lower Canada 1850s 61 Confederation in 1867 and Section 93 62 Post-Confederation Ontario 63 Post-Confederation Quebec 63 The Development of Education in the Rest of Canada 66 The History of Aboriginal Education in Canada 70 Black Segregated Schools 74 Chinese Segregated Schools 75 Japanese Segregation 76 Why Mass Schooling? 77 Teachers in Canada 78 Chapter Summary 80 55 4. The Structure of Education in Canada Introduction 84 Pre-Elementary Programs 85 Elementary and Secondary Programs 85 The Quebec System 86 Funding of Primary and Secondary Education in Canada 87 School Choice 87 School Governance 90 Separate School Boards 93 Alternative Schools 95 Private Schools 98 Home Schooling 100 French-Language Programs 100 Aboriginal Education 101 International and Offshore Schools 103 Post-Secondary Education in Canada 104 Universities 104 Colleges 107 Public and Private Post-secondary Education 108 Vocational Pathways 110 Adult Education 111 Chapter Summary 111 83 5. The Role of Curriculum Introduction 116 Historical Events in Canadian Curriculum Development 116 Influences on Curriculum 122 How do the Curricula of Different Provinces Compare on Controversial Subjects? 124 Curriculum Accountability 127 Hidden Curriculum 136 Multicultural Curriculum 137 Chapter Summary 144 115 6. Socialization in the Schooling Process Schools and the Socializing Process 152 School Rules and Codes of Conduct 165 Learning Gender 169 Relationships with Teachers 172 School Climate and School Bond 173 Peer Groups and Socialization 174 Socialization and the Home Schooled 178 Chapter Summary 179 151 7. Structural and Social Inequalities in Schooling Introduction 184 Gender 185 Social Class and Socioeconomic Status 185 Neighbourhoods, Regions, and Location 187 Family Structure 188 Children in Care 192 Immigrants and Visible Minorities 194 Undocumented Immigrants 201 Aboriginals 203 Sexual Orientation 207 Students with Special Needs 208 Efforts at Reducing Inequality 211 Resilience 212 Chapter Summary 213 183 8. School-to-Work Transitions Introduction 220 Education and the Canadian Work Force 220 Transitioning into the Labour Market 229 What is the Value of a Liberal Arts Degree? 236 Student Employment 237 The Transition to Adulthood 238 Chapter Summary 253 219 9. Challenges to Educational Practice Introduction 258 Global Education 258 Global Economic Crisis 260 Neoliberalism in Canadian Education 262 Globalization and Internationalization 268 Online Learning 273 Rising Costs and Shifting Attitudes 274 Chapter Summary 283 257 Appendix 287 Endnotes Endnotes 289 289 References References 297 297 Preface As a sociologist, I have long been fascinated by the ways in which social stratification appears at the very centre of a great deal of topics associated with the discipline. So much about social life is explained by pre-existing and persistent inequalities among members of society. Social class, immigrant status, race, gender, and various other characteristics that people are ascribed appear to strongly shape the paths that are available to them. At the same time, there is no shortage of discussion about the importance of education. Matters pertaining to education flood the media daily, whether about access, cost, jobs, or poverty. Education is widely regarded as the linchpin that has the potential to be the great equalizer or even the solution to a host of social problems. A simple Google News search of “Education and Canada” as I originally wrote this preface has revealed the following current headlines: • Quebec tuition fight about keeping education accessible, students say (CBC.ca, March 22, 2012) • Higher the incomes and education levels, higher the debt: Statistics Canada (Vancouver Sun, March 26, 2012) • Federal budget potential turning point for native schools (CBC.ca, March 26, 2012) • Why Canada’s professors are the best (best-paid, that is) (Toronto Star, March 23, 2012) In the first example, students in Quebec are protesting about post-secondary tuition fee increases, even though students in this province pay the lowest tuition fees in the country. Protesters are arguing, however, that low fees enjoyed in Quebec foster accessibility to post-secondary programs that should not be eroded. In the second story, the reporter summarizes recent Statistics Canada research that has revealed that individuals with higher levels of education also make more money, but they are also more likely to carry large amounts of debt. The third headline about the federal budget references the money that will be allocated to improve First Nations education, a topic that has seen a great deal of attention due to media coverage of the desperate conditions found at several First Nations communities, particularly those in remote areas. The last example is about professors’ salaries and why they are significantly higher than those found among the occupational group in other countries. All of the above topics touched upon in various media stories have a place in the sociology of education. What is particularly interesting—in my opinion as a researcher and an educator—is taking such examples and dissecting them. How can we as sociologists of education understand all the different issues being discussed in a single media story? What larger, underlying social forces and assumptions are at play? How do the issues in one media story link to other topics around education or inequality? What is common to all the stories I selected above for illustrative purposes is money: Quebec students are angry about having to pay more tuition, education leads to higher incomes (and more debt), First Nations education is underfunded, and professors in Canada make a lot of money. It would be easy to make quick and simplistic judgments based on such similarities: students have to pay so much money because Canadian professors are overpaid, and that may also be partly why First Nations education is underfunded. It is easy to focus on the obvious connection and attribute much of the blame of the problem to a single source, and indeed this is often the strategy employed in divisive politics. The tools that are provided by the discipline of sociology, however, allow us to understand seemingly “straightforward” issues and break them down into numerous critical components. What are the historical or cultural factors that led to current conditions? What interest groups Preface | xi have a stake in the outcomes of the issue being discussed? What are the larger social trends that may be fuelling these situations? What larger social discourses are colouring how these issues are being discussed by various groups? In this book, I have tried to link the scholarly with the everyday. In my daily pedagogy as a university professor, I have focused very pointedly on delivering lectures in ways that are most likely to keep students interested. What I have found is that many students lose interest in potentially very interesting subject matter because it does not speak to them—it does not resonate. The sociology of education is certainly a topic that should resonate with students—it pertains to an important part of their lives. As such, there are many current examples that can be brought into the discussion that are occurring around them and may have had an impact on them in the past, currently, or may do so in the future. In this text, many current and topical issues in Canadian education have been used to make the concepts as relevant as possible. I have also tried to focus on marginalized populations that students may not initially have thought about as having particular unmet needs in education. It is my goal that students recognize the deep breadth of stratification in society and how the sociology of education is inextricably linked to such issues of stratification—in both determining who gets what kind of education and how education shapes life chances. There are nine chapters in this book. The first chapter introduces the study area of this sub-discipline, using recent events in the Attawapiskat First Nation as an illustrative case study for how we may understand various topics in the sociology of education. Chapter 2 focuses on various theories—starting with the classical and progressing chronologically to poststructural, feminist, and critical race theories that are in more common use today. These theories are helpful for understanding the larger social world within which education exists. In Chapter 3, the history of education in Canada is traced from its roots in English and French Canada and the different political and cultural influences that gave education in different parts of Canada their distinctive character. In Chapter 4, the focus shifts to the structure of education in Canada and the commonalities among structures at various levels of education across the jurisdictions. Alternative structures from the norm are also given consideration, as is the federal system that governs on-reserve First Nations education in Canada. Curriculum is then turned to in Chapter 5, tracing the historical shifts in the content of what students learned at school and how this content also varied by region. The different potential influencers behind curriculum are also given careful attention as it is important to note that curriculum is a social construction that is never neutral—there are various groups that have a vested interest in what is taught in the school system. The arguments around large-scale assessments and multicultural education are also given much consideration, as they are also two controversial aspects of curricular content in Canadian education.