MBI websitesex worker in new Zealand(
https://www.mbie.govt.nz/business-and-employment/employment-and-skills/employment-legislation-reviews/
).International Journal of Social Sciences Vol. IV, No. 3 / 2015 DOI: 10.20472/SS.2015.4.3.003 DECENT WORK: AN AIM FOR ALL MADE BY ALL TANIA FERRARO, LEONOR PAIS, NUNO REBELO DOS SANTOS Abstract: The aim of this article is to analyse the 11 substantive elements of the Decent Work concept developed by the International Labour Organization. We identify 4 main aspects regarding the pursuit of decent work, which are challenges for the different agents who operate in society: (1) the responsibility shared among the various social agents; (2) cultural differentiation in expressing Decent Work; (3) its evolving character arising from the advancement of scientific knowledge; and finally, (4) the global interdependence in the scenario in which social agents operate. Four propositions aligned with those aspects are formulated, and consequences for research and intervention are proposed. Keywords: Decent work; Decent Work Agenda; Ethics; Human rights; Labour relations; JEL Classification: Z00 Authors: TANIA FERRARO, University of Coimbra, Portugal, Email:
[email protected] LEONOR PAIS, University of Coimbra, Portugal, Email:
[email protected] NUNO REBELO DOS SANTOS, University of Évora, Portugal, Email:
[email protected] Citation: TANIA FERRARO, LEONOR PAIS, NUNO REBELO DOS SANTOS (2015). Decent work: An aim for all made by all. International Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. IV(3), pp. 30-42., 10.20472/SS.2015.4.3.003 30Copyright © 2015, TANIA FERRARO et al.,
[email protected] https://doi.org/10.20472/SS.2015.4.3.003 1 Introduction The idea of ‘decent work’ (DW) was proposed by the International Labour Organization (ILO) (ILO, 1999a, 1999b), at the turn of the millennium, and the concept has been enhanced and refined to become an operational aim for all. In its updated formulation, DW is described in 11 substantive elements which are also considered the Decent Work Agenda (ILO, 2008b; 2013). Each of the 11 substantive elements of decent work corresponds, on one hand, to the principles grounding the concept, and on the other, refers to a set of implications for practice at several levels of analysis and interpretation. Those elements are mutually inter-dependent, although they can be clearly individualized, as has happened with the indicators used by the ILO. In spite of its detailed description in the decent work agenda, the task of improving the concept and finding ways to promote it worldwide is as yet unfinished. Each substantive element is presented and analysed regarding the concept they express, and a critical reflection is formulated on 4 aspects requiring consideration for clear comprehension and efficient intervention in promoting DW. Those four aspects are (1) that DW is a responsibility shared among social and economic agents, including social scientists and practitioners; (2) that there is some inter-cultural differentiation in expressing DW; (3) that in part, DW has an evolving character due to knowledge development and societal progress; and (4) that global interdependence makes national or regional measurements of DW necessary ingredients, but insufficient to represent accurate portrayal of the situation for each of the 11 substantive elements and DW in general. Each of these aspects will be highlighted in the dimensions in which they can best be demonstrated. Four propositions aligned with those aspects are then formulated. Finally, some consequences for research and intervention are proposed. 2 Substantive elements of decent work The 11 substantive elements proposed in the Decent Work Agenda (ILO, 2008b; 2013) set out from the four principle values of the ILO: freedom, equity, security and human dignity. They aim to express respect for principles and fundamental rights at work, creating job opportunities, social protection and social dialogue, ensured by the tripartism referred to above. These substantive elements are assessed by 11 large groups of statistical indicators. The set of indicators used is mainly derived from Labour Force Surveys (LBS) (ILO, 2012), from national accounts, collective bargaining agreements, economic and population censuses, and other household or commercial/industrial surveys, among others. We present each one below, highlighting how they make clear the shared responsibility for decent work, the inter-cultural differentiation in decent work expressions, the evolving dimension of these concepts and the interdependence underlying how to achieve decent work. 2.1 Employment opportunities The creation of job opportunities is a fundamental element for decent work (ILO, 2009, 2014). Despite being an element closely linked to a country’s market and socio-economic conditions, it is also connected to a perspective of business growth and expansion. It is worth considering that with the effect of globalization, an organisation’s expansion or growth often does not take place in a single country, which frequently is, or may be, accompanied by a migratory movement of workers. It is an element that involves all types of economic activity (self-employment, formal and informal work, among others) (ILO, 2002). It can be measured, at a macro- International Journal of Social Sciences Vol. IV, No. 3 / 2015 31Copyright © 2015, TANIA FERRARO et al.,
[email protected] economic level, using a positive approach (workforce, sectors that generate more employment and are more productive, for example) or a negative one (percentage of economically active population that is unemployed; under-employment; lack of job opportunities, for example). Considering the organisational level, job opportunities need to be compatible with business viability. Therefore, this component must always be analyzed taking into consideration the whole eco-system where interactions occur that have a direct or indirect impact on employment opportunities. Increased job opportunities in one country can be the direct effect of diminished opportunities in another, because both situations arise from the transfer of factories. Although we may consider interventions at the organisational level to generate employment, they always need to be balanced in the interaction between the various community agents. Responsibility for creating job opportunities cannot be attributed exclusively to any one social agent. Political agents (those defining policies compatible with the creation of employment opportunities), organisational leaders (as entrepreneurs creating new business) and individual workers (who must play their part in becoming contributors to wealth creation) share responsibility for employment opportunities. 2.2 Adequate earnings and productive work The ILO gives great importance to this element, considering that “For many people, the most important characteristic of work is pay, and the principle of an ‘adequate living wage’ is mentioned in the preamble to the ILO Constitution. [...]” (Anker et al., 2002, p. 22). ‘Earnings’ can include salaries, payment for rest hours, bonuses, awards and discounts allowed to the employee and his family (which may represent a form of payment). Contributions to social security and pension schemes, and benefits received by employees based on these schemes are excluded by ILO from the concept of adequate earnings. Also excluded are indemnizations and termination payments (ILO, 2013). This element has aspects considered static such as ‘adequate income’, while others are dynamic, such as the way to maintain that ‘adequate income’ over time. Anker et al. (2002, p. 22) quote as an example: “[…] One dynamic aspect of decent work is whether individuals are able to improve future work and income via training and further education”. That is, investments in continued education (throughtraining, directed to the function; and/or education, directed to the employee’s personal development) are sources of continuous promotion of ‘adequate income’. Productive work is the positive contribution to creating value through work. It requires performance from the individual. From organisations, it requires creation of the context that allows sufficient performance from workers. From politicians, it requires laws and public policies which promote competence development and do not prevent productive work. It becomes evident that this substantive element is closely related to the previous one. When involved in training and development programmes, individuals strengthen their employability (Rothwell & Arnold, 2007, Rothwell, 2015) and at the same time adequate earnings and productive work. The most relevant analyses, able to generate consequent interventions, must consider the complexity of the global dynamics in the system as a whole. 2.3 Decent working time The first ILO convention, in 1919, dealt with ‘working hours’. This topic is also contained in the introduction to the ILO Constitution (ILO, 1946). The time devoted to International Journal of Social Sciences Vol. IV, No. 3 / 2015 32Copyright © 2015, TANIA FERRARO et al.,
[email protected] work has various facets: excessive hours can jeopardize workers’ physical and psychological health and can also be a factor contributing to accidents and the development of long-term occupational illnesses. When badly managed, time can harm the balance of the relationship between work and family and/or personal life. Increasingly more is demanded of the worker in terms of dedication. The reduction of working hours, or part-time employment, on one hand facilitates the entry (or re-entry) of professionals to the labour market, but on the other may be an opportunity for unsuitable employment (Anker et al., 2002, p. 29). Once again, this is a component requiring examination of the complexity of mechanisms that determine working hours, considering the agents of the social system as a whole. These are influenced reciprocally. Working time also depends on the community’s capacity to generate wealth and the very environmental conditions that interfere in working time. Yet again, we are in the presence of an element inserted in the global dynamics of interdependence and resulting from shared responsibility. Therefore, this includes examining organisational responsibility and determination of work time. Effective and sustainable (Barbosa, Drach & Corbella, 2014) intervention requires the intervention of multiple agents, such as politicians, organisational leaders and individual workers. 2.4 Combining work, family and personal life Balance in the interaction between work-family and/or personal life is part of public policy in several countries.That balance is a critical aspect for many organisations (Méle, 1989; Allen, Cho & Meier, 2014). It is an element directly related to questions of gender equity at work (Anker et al., 2002, p. 38). Considering that question of equity, it is also related to appropriate time management, job opportunities for women and men, and to appropriate remuneration without discrimination. It also has an impact on