t ·t )ISCOVERING STATISTICS JSING R SUB Hamburg XXXXXXXXXXIllllllIlllIlll 11I11 IIllllllll Illl B/117107 )ISCOVERING STATISTICS JSING R NDY FIELD I JEREMY MILES I ZOE FIELD ISAGE Los Angeles I London...

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t ·t )ISCOVERING STATISTICS JSING R SUB Hamburg 11111111111111111 IllllllIlllIlll 11I11 IIllllllll Illl B/117107 )ISCOVERING STATISTICS JSING R NDY FIELD I JEREMY MILES I ZOE FIELD ISAGE Los Angeles I London I New Delhi SingapoI'e I Wa<>hington DC I - © Andy Field, Jeremy Miles and Zoe Field 2012 First published 2012 Reprinted 2012 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver's Yard 55 City Road London ECl Y lSP SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/1 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Library of Congress Control Number: Available British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-4462-0045-2 ISBN 978-1-4462-0046-9 (pbk) Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by the MPG Books Group Printed on paper from sustainable resources IJ FSC www.l!iemg MIX Paper from responsible sources FSCS C018575 • CONTENTS Preface How to use this book Acknowledgements Dedication Symbols used in this book Some maths revision 1 2 Why is my evil lecturer forcing me to Learn statistics? 1.1. What will this chapter tell me? CD 1.2. What the hell am I doing here? I don't belong here CD 1.3. Initial observation: finding something that needs explaining CD 1.4. Generating theories and testing them CD 1.5. Data collection 1: what to measure CD 1 .5.1 . Variables CD 1.5.2. Measurement error CD 1.5.3. Validity and reliability CD 1.6. Data collection 2: how to measure CD 1 .6.1 . Correlational research methods CD 1.6.2. Experimental research methods CD 1.6.3. Randomization CD 1.7. Analysing data CD 1.7.1. Frequency distributions CD 1.7.2. The centre of a distribution CD 1.7.3. The dispersion in a distribution CD 1.7.4. Using a frequency distribution to go beyond the data CD 1.7.5. Fitting statistical models to the data CD What have I discovered about statistics? CD Key terms that I've discovered Smart Alex's tasks Further reading Interesting real research Everything you ever wanted to know about statistics (well, sort of) 2.1. What will this chapter tell me? CD 2.2. Building statistical models CD xxi xxv xxix xxxi xxxii xxxiv 1 1 2 4 4 7 7 11 12 13 13 13 17 19 19 21 24 25 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 32 33 vi DISCOVERING STATISTICS USING R 2.3. Populations and samples CD 36 2.4. Simple statistical models