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Untitled Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rglo20 Globalizations ISSN: 1474-7731 (Print) 1474-774X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rglo20 Religion and Globalisation: Bringing Anthropology and International Relations Together in the Study of Religious-Political Transnational Movements Tamsin Bradley To cite this article: Tamsin Bradley (2009) Religion and Globalisation: Bringing Anthropology and International Relations Together in the Study of Religious-Political Transnational Movements, Globalizations, 6:2, 265-279, DOI: 10.1080/14747730902854208 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14747730902854208 Published online: 26 Jun 2009. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 569 View related articles Citing articles: 1 View citing articles https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rglo20 https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rglo20 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/14747730902854208 https://doi.org/10.1080/14747730902854208 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=rglo20&show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=rglo20&show=instructions https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/14747730902854208 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/14747730902854208 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/14747730902854208#tabModule https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/14747730902854208#tabModule Religion and Globalisation: Bringing Anthropology and International Relations Together in the Study of Religious-Political Transnational Movements TAMSIN BRADLEY London Metropolitan University ABSTRACT This article considers how anthropology could stake more of a contribution to the field of religion and globalisation. Anthropology presents itself as a critique of power highlighting how it operates through globalisation to marginalise groups at the local level. Anthropologists consider religion to be a source of identify. Rituals are given importance in anthropological research as vehicles through which adherents express feelings of exclusion and make sense of the world around them. Also, it is within ritual spaces that adherents decide how to respond to or/and act in the world. Both anthropology and international relations view transnational religious-political movements as one way in which adherents resist and challenge aspects of globalisation. Combining these disciplines could provide a more comprehensive analysis into what motivates individuals to join a movement. In turn this research could provide more evidence and explanation for religion’s rootedness in the world. Este artı́culo considera cómo la antropologı́a podrı́a tomar una mayor contribución en el campo de la religión y la globalización. La antropologı́a se presenta como una crı́tica de poder, destacando cómo opera a través de la globalización para marginar a los grupos a un nivel local. Los antropólogos consideran la religión como una fuente de identificación. En la investigación antropológica se les da importancia a los ritos como vehı́culos por los cuales los seguidores expresan sus sentimientos o la exclusión y les da sentido del mundo alrededor de ellos. Es también, en donde los seguidores dentro de los espacios rituales deciden cómo responder y actuar en el mundo. Tanto la antropologı́a como las relaciones internacionales ven a los movimientos trasnacionales religiosos-polı́ticos como una manera en la que los seguidores se resisten a los aspectos de desafı́o de la globalización. Una combinación de estas disciplinas podrı́a proporcionar un análisis más exhaustivo dentro de lo que motiva a los individuos para participar en un movimiento. A su vez, esta investigación podrı́a dar mayor evidencia y explicación sobre el arraigo de las religiones en el mundo. Correspondence Address: Tamsin Bradley, Department of Applied Social Sciences, London Metropolitan University, Calcutta House, Old Castle St., E1 7TP, UK. Email:
[email protected] ISSN 1474-7731 Print/ISSN 1474-774X Online/09/020265–15 # 2009 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14747730902854208 Globalizations June 2009, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 265–279 Keywords: Religion, anthropology, international relations, trans-national political movements, ethnography, rituals Introduction The central aim of this article is to show that inclusion of the anthropological perspective alongside other micro approaches has more of a contribution, than currently realised, to bring to international relations’ global analysis of religious-political transnational movements. This article acknowledges from the outset the enormous contributions made to micro analysis of globalisation from within other social science disciplines. Most notably sociology and the study of religion have been engaging with globalisation for some time. Beyer’s (1994) work is much cited in discussions on religion and globalisation. Sociologists seek to understand the intersections between globalisation and religion. How each has impacted on the creation of new boundaries that in turn impact on new patterns of social formation and relationships (Beyer & Beaman, 2007; Hopkins, Lorentzen & Mendieta, 2002; Tehranian & Lum, 2006). Scholars from within the study of religion often take a comparative approach examining the impact of globalisation on religious traditions. Cross-culturally this research includes consider- ation of religion’s role in peacekeeping efforts (Hopkins, Lorentzen & Mendieta, 2002). Alter- natively scholars will focus on a particular tradition often combing history, sociology, and religion to document the rise of social, political movements within that religion (Coleman, 2000; Warburg, Hvithamar & Wasmind, 2005). Sociologists of religion have also paid close attention to the impact of globalisation on issues of gender and religion (Elliott, 2007). By contrast anthropology has been relatively slow to stake ground in this important contem- porary area of research. This article aims to illustrate the contribution the anthropological lens can bring to work on religion and globalisation. The article will focus on developing a partner- ship between the macro discipline of international relations and anthropology. Anthropologists make a valuable contribution to research on religion and globalisation because they commonly study communities and cultures that display a strong religious identity. This focus contrasts against international relations (IR) scholars whose focus is at the level of macro relations. The inclusion of religion into the frame of IR research is limited largely to the study of religion as a global force founding political-religious transnational movements. Anthropologists’ present religion not as exceptional phenomena but as one deeply embedded in the lives of the people they study. Religion as a category in ethnographic research is used to understand the way in which religion is lived and experienced daily by people. This article closely examines how religion is studied by anthropologists and shows the value of this work for IR scholars. I believe a dialogue between anthropologists and IR scholars could forge an interesting and useful analytical frame because micro analysis conducted by anthropologists could fill some 266 T. Bradley of the gaps left by the macro focused work of IR scholars. Firstly, IR scholars who engage with religion recognise it as a permanent global force but find it hard to say ‘why’ this might be. Macro focused work is insightful in mapping and commentating on global patterns and relations but answering ‘why’ these patterns/relations form needs micro research. Ethno- graphic research conducted by anthropologists of religion could contribute more to the venture of other social sciences that seeks to produce answers to global questions from within the micro areas of people’s lives. Anthropologists argue that religion is fundamental in shaping how adherents relate to and understand the world. It is this link between belief and behaviour that is the primary focus for anthropologists. Anthropology is essentially the study of human behaviour. Ethnographic research looks to document how people relate to their world and how they respond to internal and external changes. Religion has been a popular category of analysis for anthropologists because it is within sacred, ritual spaces that adherents often seek answers to their problems and concerns. Furthermore, for those who possess a strong faith, religion is a vital aspect of their identity, one they seek to project in all spheres of their lives. The embeddedness of religion in the lives of adherents explains its endurance as a global force. If IR scholars were to look into anthropology of religion their macro analysis could produce more answers to the question: why has religion not been replaced by secularism? The second question a dual IR/anthropological perspective could provide more answers to is: why is religion so prominent in the construction and rise of political transnational movements? The personal, emotional dimension of religious actions and spaces allow those that study them to identify feelings and experiences that may turn into clear defiant actions. Those who study trans- national movements recognise that the motivation for individual membership is likely to relate to their religious identity and life experiences. Religion functions in two ways; firstly the growth of a movement is linked to the construction of a religious identity that reflects and empathises with the experiences of its members. This identity may involve the manipulation of history and/or reinterpretation of religious discourses in order to package itself in a manner that resonates with adherents. Secondly, religion operates at a private personal level. Sacred spaces create a safe environment within which an adherent can communicate with the divine. Personal feelings are expressed here that may not be articulated in any other sphere of life and actions determined. Pratt (2003) takes an anthropological approach showing how political movements begin with the formation of a specific discourse that becomes emotionally charged drawing in a bigger mem- bership. Religion provides emotional and spiritual dimensions to adherents’ lives. The use of religious narratives to tap into these personal experiences provides a strong base from which political identities and movements can be built. However, this process of building authoritative narratives about the world also acts to exclude groups. For example, anthropologists who employ a gendered perspective show how women are particularly vulnerable to marginalisation within political and social movements (Alvarez, Dagnino & Escobar, 1998; Leach & Scoones, 2007; Meyer & Staggenborg, 1996). This process of exclusion as well as inclusion is central to how religion is enacted, interpreted and lived. It highlights the need to view religion and power as inextricably linked. Narratives change as the world they try and make sense of alters. Since transnational movements are founded on narratives about how the world is and how it should be, it is likely that religion will unite those who share the narrative but will exclude those who do not or only partially see their experiences in it. Anthropological material on the liberation theology and Hindu nationalist movements shows that this process of margin- alisation also occurs within movements isolating those members that may at the start support the narrative but later find their needs are not being met. Religion and Globalisation 267 Anthropology has a further contribution to make to IR. According to Bentham (1991) and Edelman and Haugerud (2005) the anthropological critique of power should be incorporated more widely into discussion on globalisation. Anthropologists, as shown in the literature cited above on gender and transnational movements, use their micro focus to seek out voices that are usually hidden from view and audibility by macro focused studies. This perspective high- lights how global processes produce marginalising effects at the local level. It also reveals how people display resourcefulness in how they respond to repressive situations. For adherents, religion is an important part of the process by which they make sense of change and decide on the best course of action. In short, this article will argue that IR scholars should embrace the critique anthropologists apply in analysing global power relations raising the profile of marginalised voices. A dialogue between IR scholars and anthropologists could also produce a dual application of the category ‘religion’, one that recognises the collective and personal ways non-Western adherents turn to religion to make sense of their world. This article begins by reviewing IR literature on religious-political transnational movements. The critical analysis of this material acknowledges the important contribution it makes whilst also highlighting the understandable gaps/questions left unanswered by