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Cognition Cognition Cognition TENTH EDITION Thomas A. Farmer California State University, Fullerton and Margaret W. Matlin SUNY Geneseo Editorial Director Veronica Visentin Assistant Editor Ethan Lipson Senior Editorial Manager Leah Michael Editorial Manager Judy Howarth Content Management Director Lisa Wojcik Content Manager Nichole Urban Senior Content Specialist Nicole Repasky Production Editor Meghana Antony Photo Researcher Anindita Adiyal Cover Photo Credit © Lorna Roberts / Shutterstock This book was set in 10/12 TimesLTStd-Roman by SPi Global and printed and bound by Quad Graphics. Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a founda- tion of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. 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Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return mailing label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accept this book as your complimentary desk copy. Outside of the United States, please contact your local sales representative. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data LCCN: 2018051254 http://www.wiley.com/go/citizenship http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel http://www.copyright.com v Preface xv 1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1 Chapter Introduction, 1 What Is Cognitive Psychology?, 2 Historical Perspective on the Field, 4 Origins of Cognitive Psychology, 4 Wilhelm Wundt, 4 Early Memory Researchers, 5 William James, 5 Behaviorism, 5 The Gestalt Approach, 6 Frederic Bartlett, 7 Cognitive Revolution, 7 Cognitive Psychology in Present Times, 8 Mind, Brain, and Behavior, 9 Cognitive Science, 9 Artificial Intelligence, 9 Computer Metaphor of the Mind, 10 The Connectionist Approach, 11 Cognitive Neuroscience, 12 Brain Lesions, 13 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan), 13 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 14 Event-Related Potential Technique, 14 Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 15 Textbook Overview, 15 Chapter Preview, 16 Themes in the Book, 17 Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive, 17 Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate, 17 Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information, 18 Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation, 18 Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing, 18 How to Use Your Book Effectively, 18 Chapter Outline, 18 Chapter Introductions, 18 Demonstrations, 19 Individual Differences Focus, 19 Application, 20 Section Summaries, 20 Contents Contentsvi End of Chapter Review Questions, 20 Keywords, 20 Keywords List & Glossary, 20 Recommended Readings, 20 Section Summary Points, 21 Chapter Review Questions, 21 Keywords, 22 Recommended Readings, 22 Answer to Demonstration 1.4, 22 2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23 Chapter Introduction, 23 Overview of Visual Object Recognition, 24 The Visual System, 24 Organization in Visual Perception, 26 Theories of Visual Object Recognition, 27 Feature-Analysis Theory, 27 The Recognition-by-Components Theory, 29 Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition, 30 Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing, 31 Top-Down Processing and Reading, 32 “Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition, 33 Change Blindness, 33 Inattentional Blindness, 35 Specialized Visual Recognition Processes, 36 Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition, 36 Applied Research on Face Recognition, 37 Speech Perception, 39 Characteristics of Speech Perception, 40 Word Boundaries, 40 Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation, 40 Context and Speech Perception, 41 Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception, 41 Theories of Speech Perception, 42 The Special Mechanism Approach, 42 The General Mechanism Approaches, 43 Section Summary Points, 43 Chapter Review Questions, 44 Keywords, 45 Recommended Readings, 45 3 Attention and Consciousness 46 Chapter Introduction, 46 Overview of Attention, 47 Divided Attention, 47 Selective Attention, 48 Dichotic Listening, 48 The Stroop Effect, 49 Visual Search, 51 Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Overview of Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Selective Attention in Reading, 54 Contents vii Neuroscience of Attention, 55 The Orienting Attention Network, 56 The Executive Attention Network, 56 Theories of Attention, 57 Early Theories of Attention, 57 Feature-Integration Theory, 57 Consciousness, 59 Thought Suppression, 61 Blindsight, 61 Section Summary Points, 62 Chapter Review Questions, 63 Keywords, 64 Recommended Readings, 64 4 Working Memory 65 Chapter Introduction, 65 Classical Research on Short-Term Memory, 66 Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits, 67 The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique, 67 Serial Position Effect, 68 Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory, 69 Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Information Processing, 70 The Turn to Working Memory, 71 Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities, 73 Phonological Loop, 74 Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop, 75 Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76 Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76 Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 77 Central Executive, 77 Characteristics of the Central Executive, 77 The Central Executive and Daydreaming, 78 Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive, 78 Recent Views of the Central Executive, 78 Episodic Buffer, 79 Applications of Working Memory, 80 Working Memory and Academic Performance, 80 Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations, 80 Working Memory and Major Depression, 80 Working Memory and ADHD, 81 Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 82 Summary, 82 Section Summary Points, 82 Chapter Review Questions, 83 Keywords, 84 Recommended Readings, 84 5 Long-Term Memory 85 Chapter Introduction, 85 Overview of Long-Term Memory, 86 Encoding in Long-Term Memory, 87 Levels of Processing, 87 Contentsviii Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material, 88 Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect, 88 Encoding-Specificity Principle, 90 Research on Encoding Specificity, 90 Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity, 91 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory, 92 Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks, 92 Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks, 93 Individuals with Amnesia, 94 Autobiographical Memory, 95 Schemas and Autobiographical Memory, 96 Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring, 96 Flashbulb Memories, 97 Eyewitness Testimony, 99 Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony, 99 The Post-Event Misinformation Effect, 99 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony, 101 The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy, 101 Special Topics in Long-Term Memory, 102 Expertise, 102 The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise, 102 How Do Experts and Novices Differ?, 102 Own-Ethnicity Bias, 103 Emotions and Memory, 104 The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy, 107 The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy, 107 The Potential for Memory Errors, 108 Arguments for False Memory, 108 Arguments for Recovered Memory, 109 Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct, 109 Section Summary Points, 109 Chapter Review Questions, 110 Keywords, 111 Recommended Readings, 111 6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112 Chapter Introduction, 112 Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts, 113 Divided Attention, 113 Working Memory, 113 Levels of Processing, 114 Elaboration, 114 Distinctiveness, 114 Encoding Specificity, 115 Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics, 116 Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice, 116 Distributed Practice Effect, 116 Testing Effect, 116 Test Anxiety, 117 Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization, 118 Imagery, 118 Contents ix Organization, 119 Prospective Memory, 121 Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory, 121 Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures, 122 Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory, 122 Metamemory, 123 Accuracy of Metamemory, 124 Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items, 124 Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay, 125 Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy, 126 Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies, 126 Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy, 126 Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult, 127 Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies, 127 Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects, 127 Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect, 127 Feeling of Knowing, 129 Metacomprehension, 129 Metacomprehension Accuracy, 129 Improving Metacomprehension, 130 Section Summary Points, 131 Chapter Review Questions, 132 Keywords, 132 Recommended Readings, 133 Answer to Demonstration 6.4, 133 7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134 Chapter Introduction, 134 Classical Research on Visual Imagery, 135 Overview of Mental Imagery, 135 Mental Rotation, 136 Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation, 138 Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks, 139 The Imagery Debate, 139 Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures, 140 Individual differences in mental imagery, 142 Summary, 143 Factors That Influence Visual Imagery, 143 Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery, 143 Visual Imagery and Interference, 144 Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes, 145 Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability, 145 Auditory Imagery, 146 Auditory Imagery and Pitch, 147 Auditory Imagery and Timbre, 147 Cognitive Maps, 148 Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps, 150 Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities, 150 Distance Estimates and Category Membership, 150 Distance Estimates and Landmarks, 151 Cognitive Maps and Shape, 151 Contentsx Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps, 152 The Rotation Heuristic, 152 The Alignment Heuristic, 153 Creating a Cognitive Map, 154 The Spatial Framework Model, 154 The Situated Cognition Approach, 155 Section Summary Points, 155 Chapter Review Questions, 156 Keywords, 157 Recommended Readings, 157 8 General Knowledge 158 Chapter Introduction, 158 Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory, 159 Background Information, 159 The Prototype Approach, 161 Characteristics of Prototypes, 162 Levels of Categorization, 163 Conclusions About the Prototype Approach, 164 The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory, 164 Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches, 166 Network Models of Semantic Memory, 167 Anderson’s ACT-R Approach, 167 The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach, 169 Schemas and Scripts, 172 Background on Schemas and Scripts, 173 Schemas and Scripts, 173 Identifying the Script in Advance, 174 Schemas and Memory Selection, 174 Schemas and Boundary Extension, 176 Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 178 The Constructive Approach, 178 The Pragmatic Approach, 179 The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 179 Schemas and Memory Integration, 179 The Classic Research on Memory Integration, 180 Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes, 180 Section Summary Points, 184 Chapter Review Questions, 184 Keywords, 185 Recommended Readings, 185 Answer to Demonstration 8.1, 186 9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 187 Chapter Introduction, 187 Overview of Psycholinguistics, 188 Relevant Terminology and Background on Language, 188 Basic Facts About Human Language, 189 A Brief History of Psycholinguistics, 190 Chomsky’s Approach, 190 Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory, 191 Contents xi Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning, 191 On-line Sentence Comprehension, 192 Negation and the Passive Voice, 192 Syntactic Complexity, 193 Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Lexical Ambiguity, 195 Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Good-Enough Processing, 197 Brain and Language, 198 General Considerations, 198 Aphasia, 199 Revisiting Broca’s Area, 200 Hemispheric Specialization, 201 The Mirror System, 203 Reading, 203 Comparing Written and Spoken Language, 204 Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches, 205 The Direct-Access Route, 205 The Indirect-Access Route, 205 Implications for Teaching Reading to Children, 206 Discourse Comprehension, 207 Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text, 208 Drawing Inferences During Reading, 209 The Constructionist View of Inferences, 209 Factors That Encourage Inferences, 210 Higher-Level Inferences, 211 Teaching Metacomprehension Skills, 211 Section Summary Points, 212 Chapter Review Questions, 213 Keywords, 213 Recommended Readings, 213 Answer to Demonstration 9.1, 214 10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215 Chapter Introduction, 215 Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes, 216 Producing a Word, 216 Speech Errors, 217 Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors, 217 Explanations for Speech Errors, 217 Producing a Sentence, 218 Producing Discourse, 219 Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication, 219 Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition, 219 The Social Context of Language Production, 222 Common Ground, 222 Directives, 224 Framing,