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Learning and Behavior, 7th Edition Your First Study Breakwww.cengagebrain.com Get the best grade in the shortest time possible! Buy the way you want and save Choice (pick your format) Value (get free stuff*) Savings (eBooks up to 65% off print) Visit CengageBrain.com to find . . . Print • Rentals • eBooks • eChapters Best Buy Packages • Study Tools *free content availability varies 32773_end_ptg01_hires.indd 1 24/01/13 9:38 AM Seventh edition Paul ChanCe Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 1 29/01/13 8:11 PM © 2014, 2009 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2012953850 Student Edition: ISBN-13: 978-1-111-83277-3 ISBN-10: 1-111-83277-3 Loose-leaf Edition: ISBN-13: 978-1-111-83496-8 ISBN-10: 1-111-83496-2 Wadsworth 20 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Wadsworth, visit www.cengage.com/wadsworth Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition Paul Chance Publisher: Jon-David Hague Developmental Editor: Ken King Assistant Editor: Jessica Alderman Editorial Assistant: Amelia Blevins Managing Media Editor: Mary Noel Senior Brand Manager: Elisabeth Rhoden Market Development Manager: Christine Sosa Art and Cover Direction, Production Management, and Composition: PreMediaGlobal Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt Senior Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Dean Dauphinais Cover Image: Tatyana Vychegzhanina For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to
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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 2 29/01/13 8:11 PM iii Brief Contents Preface xiv Note to the Student: How to Get the Most from this Book xviii chapter 1 Introduction: Learning to Change 1 chapter 2 The Study of Learning and Behavior 34 chapter 3 Pavlovian Conditioning 56 chapter 4 Pavlovian Applications 95 chapter 5 Operant Learning: Reinforcement 126 chapter 6 Reinforcement: Beyond Habit 168 chapter 7 Schedules of Reinforcement 193 chapter 8 Operant Learning: Punishment 230 chapter 9 Operant Applications 254 chapter 10 Observational Learning 279 chapter 11 Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control 313 chapter 12 Forgetting 345 chapter 13 The Limits of Learning 376 Glossary 393 References 400 Author Index 434 Subject Index 442 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 3 29/01/13 8:11 PM iv Preface xiv Note to the Student: How to Get the Most from this Book xviii chapter 1 Introduction: Learning to Change 1 Preview 1 The Constancy of Change 2 Natural Selection 4 Evolved Behavior 11 Reflexes 11 Modal Action Patterns 13 General Behavior Traits 16 Limits of Natural Selection 19 Learning: Evolved Modifiability 21 Learning Means Change 21 What Changes Is Behavior 22 What Changes Behavior Is Experience 24 Habituation: An Example of Learning 26 Nature vs. Nurture 27 A Final Word 30 Recommended Reading 31 Review Questions 32 Practice Quiz 32 Query Answers 33 Contents 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 4 29/01/13 8:11 PM chapter 2 The Study of Learning and Behavior 34 Preview 34 The Natural Science Approach 35 Measures of Learning 36 Sources of Data 42 Anecdotes 42 Case Studies 43 Descriptive Studies 44 Experimental Studies 44 Limitations of Experiments 48 Animal Research and Human Learning 49 A Final Word 53 Recommended Reading 53 Review Questions 54 Practice Quiz 54 Query Answers 55 chapter 3 Pavlovian Conditioning 56 Preview 56 Beginnings 57 ■ Ivan Pavlov: An Experimenter from Head to Foot 58 Basic Procedures 59 ■ What’s What in Pavlovian Conditioning? 62 Higher-Order Conditioning 63 Measuring Pavlovian Learning 65 Variables Affecting Pavlovian Conditioning 66 How the CS and US Are Paired 66 CS–US Contingency 69 CS–US Contiguity 69 ■ Pavlovian Flowchart 70 Stimulus Features 72 Prior Experience with CS and US 73 Number of CS–US Pairings 75 Contents v 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 5 29/01/13 8:11 PM Intertrial Interval 76 Other Variables 76 Extinction of Conditional Responses 78 Theories of Conditioning 81 Stimulus Substitution Theory 81 Preparatory Response Theory 84 Compensatory Response Theory 85 ■ Conditional Awareness 86 Rescorla-Wagner Model 87 Other CS Theories 90 A Final Word 91 Recommended Reading 92 Review Questions 92 Practice Quiz 93 Query Answers 94 chapter 4 Pavlovian Applications 95 Preview 95 Fear 96 ■ Fear of Public Speaking 98 Prejudice 102 The Paraphilias 104 ■ The Boy Next Door 105 ■ Who Are the Victims? 108 Taste Aversion 108 Advertising 111 ■ Nature’s Weed Whackers 112 Drug Addiction 115 Health Care 120 A Final Word 122 Recommended Reading 123 Review Questions 123 Practice Quiz 124 Query Answers 125 vi Contents 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 6 29/01/13 8:11 PM chapter 5 Operant Learning: Reinforcement 126 Preview 126 Beginnings 127 ■ E. L. Thorndike: What the Occasion Demanded 129 Types of Operant Learning 131 ■ B. F. Skinner: The Darwin of Behavior Science 136 Kinds of Reinforcers 138 Primary and Secondary 138 Natural and Contrived 140 ■ Operant and Pavlovian Learning Compared 141 Variables Affecting Operant Learning 142 Contingency 142 Contiguity 144 Reinforcer Characteristics 146 Behavior Characteristics 147 Motivating Operations 148 Other Variables 150 Neuromechanics of Reinforcement 150 Theories of Positive Reinforcement 153 Hull’s Drive-Reduction Theory 154 Relative Value Theory and the Premack Principle 155 Response-Deprivation Theory 157 Theories of Avoidance 159 Two-Process Theory 159 One-Process Theory 163 A Final Word 163 Recommended Reading 164 Review Questions 165 Practice Quiz 166 Query Answers 166 Contents vii 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 7 29/01/13 8:11 PM chapter 6 Reinforcement: Beyond Habit 168 Preview 168 Shaping New Behavior 169 ■ The Shaping of Shaping 170 ■ Tips for Shapers 172 Chaining 173 Insightful Problem Solving 176 Creativity 180 Superstition 184 ■ Quick! Get Some Mud! 187 Helplessness 187 A Final Word 189 Recommended Reading 190 Review Questions 190 Practice Quiz 191 Query Answers 192 chapter 7 Schedules of Reinforcement 193 Preview 193 Beginnings 194 Simple Schedules 195 Continuous Reinforcement 195 Fixed Ratio 195 Variable Ratio 198 ■ Life Is a Gamble 199 ■ VR Harassment 200 Fixed Interval 200 Variable Interval 203 Extinction 204 Other Simple Schedules 208 Stretching the Ratio 210 Compound Schedules 212 viii Contents 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 8 29/01/13 8:11 PM The Partial Reinforcement Effect 214 Discrimination Hypothesis 216 Frustration Hypothesis 217 Sequential Hypothesis 217 Response Unit Hypothesis 218 Choice and the Matching Law 220 ■ Ghetto Choice 225 A Final Word 225 Recommended Reading 226 Review Questions 227 Practice Quiz 228 Query Answers 228 chapter 8 Operant Learning: Punishment 230 Preview 230 Beginnings 231 Types of Punishment 231 ■ Aversive Confusion: Positive Punishment and Negative Reinforcement 233 Variables Affecting Punishment 234 Contingency 234 Contiguity 235 ■ Texting While Driving—Punishable by Death 236 Punisher Intensity 238 Introductory Level of Punisher 239 Reinforcement of the Punished Behavior 240 Alternative Sources of Reinforcement 240 Motivating Operations 241 Other Variables 242 Theories of Punishment 243 Two-Process Theory 243 One-Process Theory 244 Problems with Punishment 245 Alternatives to Punishment 248 A Final Word 250 Contents ix 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 9 29/01/13 8:11 PM Recommended Reading 251 Review Questions 251 Practice Quiz 252 Query Answers 253 chapter 9 Operant Applications 254 Preview 254 Home 255 School 257 Clinic 263 Self-Injurious Behavior 263 Delusions 266 Paralysis 269 ■ Operant Medical Assessment 270 Work 271 Zoo 273 A Final Word 275 ■ Reinforcement Goes to the Dogs 276 Recommended Reading 276 Review Questions 277 Practice Quiz 278 Query Answers 278 chapter 10 Observational Learning 279 Preview 279 Beginnings 280 Types of Observational Learning 281 Social Observational Learning 281 Asocial Observational Learning 286 ■ Vicarious Pavlovian Conditioning? 286 Imitation 289 x Contents 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 10 29/01/13 8:11 PM Variables Affecting Observational Learning 292 Difficulty of the Task 292 Skilled vs. Unskilled Model 293 Characteristics of the Model 294 Characteristics of the Observer 296 Consequences of Observed Acts 297 Consequences of the Observer’s Behavior 298 ■ Observational Learning and Human Nature 298 ■ Cross-Species Observational Learning 299 Theories of Observational Learning 299 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 299 Operant Learning Model 301 Applications of Observational Learning 303 Education 303 Social Change 305 ■ The Down Side of Observational Learning 309 A Final Word 310 Recommended Reading 310 Review Questions 311 Practice Quiz 311 Query Answers 312 chapter 11 Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control 313 Preview 313 Beginnings 314 Generalization 314 ■ Generalized Therapy 320 Discrimination 320 Stimulus Control 328 Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control in the Analysis of Behavior 329 Mental Rotation as Generalization 329 Concept Formation as Discrimination Learning 331 Smoking Relapse as Stimulus Control 334 Contents xi 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 11 29/01/13 8:11 PM Theories of Generalization and Discrimination 336 Pavlov’s Theory 336 Spence’s Theory 337 The Lashley-Wade Theory 338 A Final Word 341 Recommended Reading 342 Review Questions 342 Practice Quiz 343 Query Answers 344 chapter 12 Forgetting 345 Preview 345 Beginnings 346 Defining Forgetting 346 ■ Learning for the Future 347 ■ A Taxonomy of Knowledge 349 Measuring Forgetting 350 Sources of Forgetting 353 Degree of Learning 354 Prior Learning 356 ■ The Man Who Couldn’t Forget 356 Subsequent Learning 359 Changes in Context 361 ■ The State of Learning 364 Applications 365 Eyewitness Testimony 365 Learning to Remember 366 ■ Say All Fast Minute Each Day Shuffle 371 A Final Word 372 Recommended Reading 373 Review Questions 374 Practice Quiz 375 Query Answers 375 xii Contents 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 12 29/01/13 8:11 PM chapter 13 The Limits of Learning 376 Preview 376 Physical Characteristics 377 Nonheritability of Learned Behavior 378 Heredity and Learning Ability 379 ■ Recipe for Genius 381 Neurological Damage and Learning 382 Critical Periods 383 Preparedness and Learning 385 ■ Learning and Humanity 389 The Last Final Word 390 Recommended Reading 390 Review Questions 391 Practice Quiz 391 Query Answers 392 Glossary 393 References 400 Author Index 434 Subject Index 442 Contents xiii 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 13 29/01/13 8:11 PM xiv Preface A textbook is like a city: It is never finished. Go into any city and you see old buildings being torn down and new ones being built, trees being planted in vacant lots, jackhammers tearing up streets to install phone lines under- ground. The same is true of textbooks: Some topics are dropped, new ones added, chapters or sections moved from here to there. Here are some of the changes you’ll see in Learning and Behavior, 7th edition: • Updated content. The reference list includes over 100 items dated 2011 or later. • New topics, including evaluative conditioning, asocial observational learning, computer-based VRET, progressive schedules, and con- straint-induced movement therapy, among others. • More studies are cited to document findings, especially those that are counterintuitive or controversial, such as that learning sometimes oc- curs without awareness of the contingencies involved. • New applications, including the use of Pavlovian and operant procedures for diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of medical disorders. • The Miller–Dollard theory of observational learning has been replaced with a generic operant learning model. • Increased emphasis on the role of context in forgetting, and the idea that forgetting may be largely a matter of stimulus control, a view taken by increasing numbers of psychologists. • Footnotes are replaced by brief marginal notes that students are more likely to read. • An increased emphasis in the recommended reading lists on items students are likely to read, such as Hal Markowitz’s Enriching Animal Lives, Susan Schneider’s The Science of Consequences, and articles in The New Yorker and other popular periodicals. • An increase in the number and variety of illustrations, including pho- tographs and sketches. • Increased coverage of research by evolutionary biologists, prima- tologists, ethologists, rehabilitation psychologists, developmental psychologists, and cognitive psychologists. 32773_fm_ptg01_i-xviii.indd 14 29/01/13 8:11 PM • An increase in coverage of research done outside the United States. • Researcher affiliations are sometimes provided, mostly involving recent studies, to convey to students that not all noteworthy learning research comes out of Ivy League schools. • A brief section near the end of each chapter called “A Final Word.” My hope is that these will prompt the students to think about and discuss the implications of their reading. • To make room for new material, I have deleted the workbook ( students will find a study guide online); reduced chapter review questions from 20 to 10; shortened the discussion of memory; removed Edwin Twitmyer, the discussion of semantic conditioning, self-control, self-awareness, and mnemonic systems. Some of this material will be available on the book’s website. Although cities are constantly being “revised,” some things remain the same for decades. The same is true of texts. The following key features of Learning and Behavior remain essentially unchanged: • A readable style and a cordial tone that help make reading the text a welcome activity rather than a tedious chore, so that students get more out of their class sessions. • Certain themes continue to run through the text: that learning is a biological mechanism (I call it evolved modifiability) by which indi- viduals cope with change; that changes in behavior are the products of biological and environmental events; and that the natural science approach is the best way to study behavior. • An abundance of examples and applications to help students “get” the principles, not merely memorize them. • Though many of the experiments involve animal subjects, the emphasis is on what that research tells us about human behavior. • Chapter 2 reviews the basic research methods used to study learning, in- cluding the single-subject designs that are unfamiliar to