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Persuasion: Social Influence and Compliance Gaining 2 3 Persuasion Now in its sixth edition, Persuasion: Social Influence and Compliance Gaining continues to boast an accessible voice and vibrant aesthetic that appeals to undergraduate students of communication, psychology, advertising, and marketing. In addition to presenting established theories and models, this text encourages students to develop and apply general conclusions about persuasion in real-world settings. Along the way, students are introduced to the practice of social influence in an array of contexts (e.g., advertising, marketing, politics, interpersonal relationships, social media, groups) and across a variety of topics (e.g., credibility, personality, deception, motivational appeals, visual persuasion). The new edition features an expanded treatment of digital and social media, up-to- date research on theory and practice, and enhanced discussions of topics such as political campaigning, emotional marketing, olfactory influence, and ethics. Instructors can also use the book’s downloadable test bank, instructor’s manual, and PowerPoint slides in preparing course material. Robert H. Gass is Professor Emeritus of Communication Studies at California State University, Fullerton, USA. John S. Seiter is Professor in the Department of Languages, Philosophy, and Communication Studies at Utah State University, USA. 4 Persuasion Social Influence and Compliance Gaining Sixth Edition Robert H. Gass John S. Seiter 5 Sixth edition published 2018 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis The right of Robert H. Gass and John S. Seiter to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2002 Fifth edition published by Routledge 2016 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Gass, Robert H., author. | Seiter, John S., author. Title: Persuasion : social influence, and compliance gaining / Robert H. Gass, John S. Seiter. Description: Sixth edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. Identifiers: LCCN 2017042512| ISBN 9781138630598 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138630611 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Persuasion (Psychology) | Influence (Psychology) | Manipulative behavior. Classification: LCC BF637.P4 G34 2018 | DDC 153.8/52—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017042512 ISBN: 978-0-8153-5821-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-63061-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-20930-2 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK 6 https://www.lccn.loc.gov/2017042512 Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138630611 7 http://www.routledge.com/9781138630611 To Banjo and Julep, my two English Setters, who keep me company when I’m writing at home. Bob Gass To Miss Gordon, my second-grade teacher, for knowing that self- concept is the proper starting place. John Seiter To our families—Susan, Jordan, Graham, Debora, Dean, Andy, and Christian—for doing without us when we were writing and for putting up with us when we weren’t. Robert Gass and John Seiter 8 1. Contents Preface for the Sixth Edition Acknowledgments Why Study Persuasion? Aims and Goals Persuasion Is Not a Dirty Word Persuasion Is Our Friend The Pervasiveness of Persuasion: You Can Run but You Can’t Hide Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More New Persuasion: Digital and Online Influence eWOM: Digital Buzz Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You Gamification: You’ve Got Game Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand Persuasive Technology: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No Persuasion in the Sciences Persuasion in the Arts Other Not-So-Obvious Contexts for Persuasion Weird Persuasion Persuasion in Interpersonal Settings Five Benefits of Studying Persuasion The Instrumental Function: Be All That You Can Be The Knowledge and Awareness Function: Inquiring Minds Want to Know The Defensive Function: Duck and Cover The Debunking Function: Puh-Shaw 9 2. 3. Well-Being and Self-Worth: I Feel Good Two Criticisms of Persuasion Does Learning About Persuasion Foster Manipulation? Are Persuasion Findings Too Inconsistent or Confusing? Ethical Concerns About the Use of Persuasion What Constitutes Persuasion? Pure Versus Borderline Cases of Persuasion Limiting Criteria for Defining Persuasion Intentionality Effects Free Will and Conscious Awareness Symbolic Action Interpersonal Versus Intrapersonal A Model of the Scope of Persuasion The Context for Persuasion A Working Definition of Persuasion So What Isn’t Persuasion? Dual Processes of Persuasion The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion The Heuristic Systematic Model of Persuasion The Unimodel of Persuasion Attitudes and Consistency What Is an “Attitude” in 20 Words or Less? So How Do You Measure the Durn Things? Explicit Measures: Self-Report Scales Visually Oriented Scales Pitfalls in Measuring Attitudes Implicit Measures: What’s Rattling Around Inside Your Brain? More Roundabout Ways of Measuring Attitudes Physiological Measures of Attitude The Reasoned Action Approach (RAA) Behavioral Beliefs and Attitudes: Believe It or Not 10 4. Normative Beliefs: It’s What the Cool Kids Are Doing Perceived Behavioral Control: I Got This The Persistence of Attitudes Attitudes as Associative Networks: Your Mind Is a Web Manufacturing Favorable Associations: Jiggling the Web Brands and Branding: That’s the Life Who Are You Wearing? Brand Personality Authenticity: Keeping It Real Cause-Related Marketing: The Feel-Good Factor Sloganeering Sponsorship Psychological Consistency The Inner Peace of Consistency Methods of Maintaining Consistency Marketing Strategies: How to Have Your Cake and Eat It Too Brand Loyalty: Accept No Substitute Write and Tell Us Why You Love This Book in 24 Words or Less Marketing Inconsistency Capitalizing on Inconsistency Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT) Cognitive Dissonance and Buyer’s Remorse Polarization of Alternatives Cognitive Dissonance, Self-Image, and Culture Factors That Affect the Magnitude of Dissonance Dissonance and Persuasion: Putting It All Together Forbidden Fruit: Psychological Reactance Counterattitudinal Advocacy: Playing Devil’s Advocate I’m All In: Increasing Commitment Commitments Can “Grow Legs” Credibility Celebrity Selling Power: The Answer Is in the Stars The Match-Up Hypothesis: Why Jonah Hill Should Not Be Revlon’s Spokesperson Catch a Falling Star 11 5. What Is Credibility? Credibility Is a Receiver-Based Construct Credibility Is a Multidimensional Construct Credibility Is a Situational/Contextual Phenomenon Credibility Is Dynamic The Factor Analytic Approach to Credibility Primary Dimensions of Credibility Secondary Dimensions of Credibility The Factor Analytic Approach and the Real World Credibility as a Peripheral Cue It’s What’s Up Front That Counts The Sleeper Effect Credibility and Image Management Interpersonal Credibility, Impression Management, Facework, and Accounts Strategies for Enhancing Credibility: Get Your Mojo Working Communicator Characteristics and Persuasion Demographic Variables and Persuasion Age and Persuasion: Pretty Please With Sugar on Top Gender Differences and Persuasion: The Times, They Aren’t a- Changin’ Ethnicity, Culture, and Persuasion: “Me” and “We” Perspectives Intelligence and Persuasion: Dumb and Dumber Psychological and Communication States and Traits Self-Esteem and Persuasion: Feelin’ Kinda Low Anxiety and Persuasion: Living in Fear Preference for Consistency: I Wouldn’t Change a Thing Self-Monitoring and Persuasion: Periscope Up Ego Involvement: Not Budging an Inch Issue Involvement: What’s This Have to Do With Me? Dogmatism, Authoritarianism, and Social Vigilantism: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks Narcissism: How Do I Love Me? Let Me Count the Ways Cognitive Complexity and Need for Cognition 12 6. 7. Persuasion and Aggression: Sticks and Stones Analyzing and Adapting to Audiences Pay Attention to the Situation Keep Your Audience’s Mind in Mind Remember the Importance of Audience States and Traits Don’t Forget About Audience Demographics Conformity and Influence in Groups Conformity as Persuasion: In With the Crowd In the Beginning: Early Research on Conformity Effects Variables Related to Conformity Social Proof: Using the Sheep Factor to Persuade Others Ostracism: Shuns and Guns Deindividuation, Social Loafing, and Social Facilitation: Getting Lost in the Crowd What a Riot: An Examination of Deindividuation Social Loafing: Not Pulling Your Own Weight Social Facilitation: Would You Rather Be Alone? How Groups Affect Decision Making: To Risk or Not to Risk Language and Persuasion Symbols, Meaning, and Persuasion: The Power of Babble Connotative and Denotative Meaning: That’s Not How I See It Ultimate Terms: Speak of the Devil Aphorisms and Familiar Phrases: That Rings a Bell Metaphors: One and the Same The Power of Labeling Euphemisms and Doublespeak: Making the Worse Appear the Better and Vice Versa Language Intensity, Vividness, and Offensiveness ##@!!!!##: Profanity and Persuasion Political Correctness The Effects of Vividness: A Picture’s Worth a Thousand Words Language Intensity Powerless Language and Persuasion: Um’s the Word 13 8. 9. 10. Nonverbal Influence The Direct Effects Model of Immediacy Types of Nonverbal Communication Kinesics: Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes, Knees and Toes Haptics: Reach Out and Touch Someone Keep Your Distance? Proxemics and Persuasion Chronemics: All Good Things to Those Who Wait? Artifacts and Physical Features of the Environment: Dress for Success Physical Appearance: Of Beauties and Beasts Paralinguistics and Persuasion: Pump Up the Volume? Structuring and Ordering Persuasive Messages Implicit and Explicit Conclusions: Let Me Spell It Out for You Gain-Framed Versus Loss-Framed Messages: Keep on the Sunny Side? Quantity Versus Quality of Arguments: The More the Merrier? The Use of Evidence: The Proof’s Not in the Pudding Repetition and Mere Exposure: You Can Say That Again Order Effects and Persuasion: First Things First Primacy and Recency Effects: The First Shall Be Last, and the Last Shall Be First An Ounce of Prevention: Inoculation, Message-Sidedness, and Forewarning Inoculation Theory: Of Needles and Arguments One-Sided Versus Two-Sided Messages: Both Sides Now Forewarning: You’d Better Watch Out Compliance Gaining Actions Speak the Loudest: A Definition of Compliance Gaining In the Beginning: The Roots of Compliance-Gaining Research Situation: The “It Depends” of Compliance-Gaining Behavior Seeking Compliance From Strangers and Intimates Power, Legitimacy, and Politeness Who Are You? Individual Characteristics and Compliance-Gaining Behavior 14 11. 12. The Study of Compliance-Gaining Goals: Eyes on the Prize How Goals Bring Meaning to Compliance-Gaining Situations: What’s It All About, Alfie? Primary and Secondary Goals: Wanting and Eating Your Cake Problems Facing Compliance Research: Trouble in Paradise Compliance Gaining in Action: Seeing Is Believing Sequential Persuasion Pregiving: The Old “I’ll-Scratch-Your-Back-if-You’ll-Scratch-Mine” Approach Why Is the Pregiving Tactic Persuasive? Foot in the Door: The “Give-Me-an-Inch-and-I’ll-Take-a-Mile” Tactic Why Is a Foot in the Door So Persuasive? When Does a Foot in the Door Work? The Door-in-the-Face Tactic: “Ask for the Stars” Why Is a Door in the Face So Persuasive? When Does a Door in the Face Work? The That’s-Not-All Tactic: Seeking Compliance by Sweetening the Deal The Low-Ball Tactic: Changing the Deal Why Lowballing Works “Sorry, We Don’t Have Any More