Biometrics significantly increase the chances of identifying a suspect or person of interest, in a...

Question

Biometrics significantly increase the chances of identifying a suspect or person of interest, in a criminal investigation, compared to previously used systems such as physiognomy and anthropometry.

Multibiometric systems, compared to generic biometric systems, aresignificantlymore accurate in authenticating asuspect or person of interest in a criminal investigation.

Physiological biometric modalitiesaresignificantly morereliable than behavioral biometric modalities for successfully and accuratelyidentifying a criminal or person of interest.

1. Biometrics significantly increase the chances of identifying a suspect or person of interest, in a criminal investigation, compared to previously used systems such as physiognomy and anthropometry. 2. Multibiometric systems, compared to generic biometric systems, are significantly more accurate in authenticating a suspect or person of interest in a criminal investigation. 3. Physiological biometric modalities are significantly more reliable than behavioral biometric modalities for successfully and accurately identifying a criminal or person of interest. Section 1: Organization of Contents Elements The following preliminary pages (numbered in lowercase Roman numerals) precede the body of the thesis, in this order: Title page Abstract Key words after the abstract (3 -5 words) Table of contents List of tables (if appropriate) List of illustrations (charts, graphs, figures) (if appropriate) List of symbols (if appropriate) Paginated in Arabic numerals is the text and other pages following the preliminary pages arranged in the following order: Text (chapters of the manuscript) References Appendices Title Page All Masters Theses must carry the following information on the title page: Abstract All abstracts must be double space and the title should simply be ABSTRACT. The abstract should reflect clear information concerning the contents of the thesis. Key words (3-5 words) Table of Contents The table of contents is designed for the convenience of the reader. It should include the acknowledgment page, abstract, list of tables, list of illustrations, list of abbreviations or symbols, appendices, and references as well as the major sections in the text. Do not list the "Title Page" or "Table of Contents" in the table of contents. Please note the following: You must have dot leaders between the end of a heading and its page number · Headings in the table of contents should appear as they do in the text. List of Tables The term "table" applies to numerical and statistical data set in vertical or horizontal alignment. If there are tables in your text/appendix, a list of tables must be included. The "List of Tables" is on a page by itself and arranged in the same general format as the Table of Contents. Type the table numbers in Arabic numerals, and the titles in capital and small letters, with period leaders extending from the last letter of the title to the page number. Please note: Titles may be shorter than they appear in the text as long as they are not misleading. Titles may not be longer than the titles in the text. Numbering of tables. You have two options: (a) You may begin by numbering the first table with the numeral "1" and continue to number your tables consecutively throughout the entire manuscript; or (b) you may number the first table in each chapter with numeral '1" and continue to number your tables consecutively within each chapter. For example, if chapter four has three tables and chapter five has three tables, the numbering would be as follows: 4.1 4.2 4.3; 5.1, 5.2, 5.3. Single space within titles which are longer than one line, but double space between each entry. List of Figures (or chart and graphs) This list is also placed on a page by itself and arranged in the same general format as the Table of Contents. Designate figure numbers with Arabic numerals, and plate numbers, if any, with capital Roman numerals. If the thesis contains both figures and plates, arrange them on separate lists. List of Symbols If symbols are needed in the text, a list should be provided to explain their definitions or meanings. The list should be placed on a separate page and included where specified by these instructions. Preface A preface, while optional, enables you to explain your purpose and perhaps justify your choice of a topic. The preface is also an appropriate place to present an overview of the project, including a description of what is to be found in each chapter. If utilized, it is part of the preliminary pages (numbered with Roman numerals) and therefore precedes the main text. Text The organization of the text varies somewhat with the subject matter. The project is divided into five chapters, each chapter titled and beginning on a new page. In general, the content of the five chapters include: Chapter I: Introduction The first chapter provides an overview of the project. The specific subsections of this chapter will vary, depending on the subject matter. In general, the first chapter should include the following information: Background of the Study: provide a brief history of the ideas and issues related to the research topic. This section should not be a review of the literature (though some information may be repeated in the literature review), but a description of the events leading up to this research. Problem Statement: this is the heart of the research project. This subsection states the reason(s) why this research project is important. A good way to approach the Problem Statement is to address the following: Because of x and y, there is a problem in society (or the criminal justice system or the field of forensic science); if only we knew more about things might be better. The research project should be designed to answer z, which is the research question. Purpose and objectives of the Study: list the component parts of the research question. Rarely is a problem in forensic sciences one-dimensional. This subsection should describe the specific elements of the problem being addressed by the research. Definition of Terms: list definitions for only those terms which might be unfamiliar to the reader, especially those which can be considered terms of art and operational definitions. No need to reference the definition as you intend to use it. Limitations of the Study: describe self-imposed limits on the research, including those that relate to both the breadth and depth of the inquiry. Also include limitations that exist due to factors beyond your control. Describe the (potential) effects the particular limitations may have on your research. Research Hypotheses: based on the purpose and objectives, what are the expected outcomes for the research? Hypotheses are essentially predictions about the answers to the research question and its component parts. The research hypotheses are a critical element of the research project: they will guide the literature review; heavily influence the research methodology needed to obtain data that will either support or reject the hypotheses; and provide the focus for data analysis, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES SHOULD FOLLOW THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND WRITTEN SO CLEAR AS TO WHAT YOU WILL BE “TESTING”. Summary of Remaining Chapters: Describe the content of the remaining chapters. If a preface is utilized, this subsection is not necessary. REMAINING CHAPTERS BEGIN WITH CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW. Chapter II: Literature Review The second chapter should not be confused with the Introduction in Chapter I. The introduction provides a review of the topic; the Literature Review summarizes what has been said about the topic. The Literature Review is not a series of book (or journal article) reports. A good literature review tells a story about the topic, using scholarly published works to support what is written. The chapter should be organized in such a way as to (a) bring together the most important writings about the research question in general, followed by (b) a closer examination of the writings related to the component parts detailed in the Purpose and Objectives subsection of Chapter I. It is very helpful to the reader if the ideas are presented in the same order throughout the thesis. This chapter will contain the greatest number of citations, so it is important that they be done correctly. Each citation must have a corresponding listing in the Reference section. The Literature Review should not include data that will be used to answer the research question or test your research hypotheses. If the project is utilizing an analysis of published research to answer the research question, the Literature Review should provide the background and take the reader up to the point where those studies begin. Chapter III: Methodology In general, this chapter describes how the data will be collected for your research (i.e. original “bench type”, survey or peer reviewed data from published sources or data collected from various government or other databases) that after analysis WILL ALLOW YOU TO MAKE A COMPELLING ARGUMENT TO ACCEPT OR REJECT EACH RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS. It is important to utilize appropriate methods of data collection in order to be able to support or reject the research hypotheses. This chapter should begin with a description of the research methods used in the research, including a description of the dependent and independent variables, if any. Chapter III will most likely include the following subsections: Setting:if important to the research, describe the time and place of data collection. Description of the Subjects: depending on the type of data used in the project, this subsection can include either subjects involved in primary data collection, or those described in published research studies. If the project involves human subjects, it is necessary to first obtain their consent in writing. Description of the Research Instrument(s): fully describe all questionnaires and tests, if appropriate. Include a copy of questionnaires in the Appendix. Procedures: describe in full detail how data were collected. If different methods were used, each method must be described. This subsection should also include a description and rationale for any statistical procedures used to support or reject the research hypotheses. Chapter IV: Results This chapter includes a presentation and analysis of the data. The tone of the chapter is purely objective, devoid of assumptions and interpretations. Following a summary of the research data, Chapter IV should be organized in manner consistent with the research hypotheses: first, present data related to the first hypotheses; and second, analyze those data to determine whether the first hypothesis can be supported or rejected. Follow this sequence for each hypothesis. Tables are an effective way to present quantitative data. Qualitative data should be summarized, as opposed to verbatim transcriptions. Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations This chapter involves (a) a Discussion of the research thesis hypotheses, including the findings, interpretation of the results, and problems and/or limitations; followed by (b) a Conclusion: what did we find out? what did we learn? and (c) Recommendations for changes in policy or practice, future research, or anything else that will direct solutions to the problem(s) that were the focus of the research. References Only those works cited in the text appear in the Reference section and, conversely, every work in the Reference section must appear in the text. It is important

biometric-research-topic-hch1pokx-ltm1fetq.docx guidelines-wmfwxycx-knxqaq0v.docx

Abhishek · Accepted Answer

Running Head: BIOMETRICS DISSERTATION						1
BIOMETRICS DISSERTATION 								8
THE USE OF BIOMETRICS AS A METHOD OF IDENTIFYING A SUSPECT OR PERSON OF INTEREST (POI) IN A CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Abstract
The research paper addresses the topic “The use of biometrics as a method of identifying a suspect or person of interest (POI) in a criminal investigation." However, the overall research has been approached to five major sections, and it determines different aspects of the research topic. The first chapter has included a detailed introduction of the research topic. The significance and the rationale of the research topic have been included that explore the essentiality of biometric methods in the criminal investigation process.
However, different aspects of biometric methods and their significance on criminal investigations are accounted for in the second chapter of the research work, which helps to understand the research topic better. The researcher has approached secondary research methodology to conduct the research work and explore different factors such as the interrelation of biometrics in forensic science and the application of biometrics to determine the criminal and his offense.
At the same time, in the discussion, the term bag of soft biometric is introduced, which refers to the accommodation of classical and modern forms of biometrics that are more effective and reliable to conduct the investigation process for criminal identification and prevention offenses in the security system.
Keywords: criminal investigations, forensic study, biometric in criminal identification, multimodal biometric is forensic study, crime scene evidence collection 
Acknowledgement
I want to acknowledge the assistance of all the people who had helped me complete this research successfully. I would wish to show my gratitude towards my supervisor who had helped me extensively in this study and without whose support; I would not have been able to finish this research. Without their support and response, this study would not have been possible. Lastly, I would also express my thankfulness to my friends and family whose encouragement has assisted me during my research.
Thanking you all,
_____________________.
Table of Contents
Abstract	2
Acknowledgement	3
Chapter I: Introduction	11
1.1 Background of the Study	11
1.2 Problem Statement	13
1.3 Purpose, Objectives and Hypotheses of the Study	14
1.3.1 Research Purpose	14
1.3.2 Research Objectives	14
1.3.3 Research Hypotheses	14
1.4 Definition of Terms	15
1.4.1 Physiognomy	15
1.4.2 Anthropometry	15
1.4.3 Forensic Science	15
1.4.4 Sensor Module	16
1.4.5 Feature Extraction Module	16
1.4.6 Matching and Decision-Making Module	16
1.4.7 System Database Module	16
1.4.8 Identification	16
1.4.9 Verification	17
1.4.10 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)	17
1.4.11 Automated Biometric Identification System (IDENT)	17
1.4.12 Homeland Advanced Recognition Technology (HART)	17
1.4.13 Enhanced Functionality	18
1.4.14 Eurodac Biometric System (European Dactyloscopy System) (EURODAC)	18
1.4.15 Entry / Exit System (EES)	18
1.4.16 Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS)	18
1.4.17 Next Generation Identification (NGI)	18
1.4.18 Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)	19
1.4.19 Foreign Biometric Exchange (FBE) Program	19
1.4.20 Quick Capture Platform	19
1.4.21 Flyaway Program	19
1.4.22 Preventing and Combating Serious Crime (PCSC) Initiative	20
1.4.23 Criminal History Record Information (CHRI)	20
1.4.24 National Missing Persons DNA Database (NDIS)	20
1.5 Limitations of the Study	20
1.6 Summary of Remaining Chapters	20
Chapter II: Literature Review	22
2.1 Criminal Investigation	22
2.2 Conventional Methods of Investigation	23
2.3 Limitation of Conventional Methods	23
2.3.1 Insufficient Evidence:	23
2.3.2 Concealment of Identity:	24
2.3.3 Time Consuming Process:	24
2.3.4 Problem with Standardization:	24
2.4 Incorporation of Biometrics in Criminal Investigation	24
2.5 Characteristics of Biometrics	25
2.6 Data Acquisition in the Biometric System	26
2.7 Application of Biometric in Criminal Investigation	27
2.7.1 Fingerprint Biometrics	27
2.7.2 Face Biometrics	28
2.7.3 DNA Biometrics	28
2.7.4 Palm Print Biometrics	29
2.7.5 Iris Biometrics	29
2.7.6 Voice Biometrics	29
2.8 Emerging Biometric Technologies	30
2.8.1 Gait Biometrics	30
2.8.2 Keystroke Biometrics	30
2.8.3 Odor Biometrics	30
2.9 Limitation of Biometric Systems	31
2.10 Biometric Matching System	31
2.11 Multimodal Biometric System	33
2.12 Fused Multimodal System	33
2.13 Fingerprint Recognition	35
2.14 Retina Recognition	35
2.15 Finger Vein Recognition	35
2.16 Feature Level Fusion	35
2.17 Biometrics in Forensic Science	36
2.18 Cases Cracked by Biometric System	37
2.18.1 Case 1: Ted Bundy (Bite Marks, Fibers of Cloth)	37
2.18.2 Case 2: The Lindbergh Kidnapping (Handwriting)	37
2.18.3 Case 3: The Green River Killer (DNA Sample)	38
2.18.4 Case 4: San Diego (Fingerprint)	38
2.18.5 Case 5: Latent Cold Case Project (DNA Sample)	39
Chapter III: Methodology	40
3.1 Overview	40
3.2 Research Philosophy	40
3.3 Research Approach	41
3.4 Research Design	42
3.5 Data Collection and Analysis Method	43
3.6 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria	43
3.6.1 Inclusion Criteria	43
3.6.2 Exclusion Criteria	44
3.7 Reliability and Validity	44
3.8 Ethical Considerations	45
3.9 Timeframe	46
3.10 Summary	46
Chapter IV: Results	47
4.1 Overview	47
4.2 Secondary Data Analysis	47
4.2.1 Biometrics in Forensic Science: Challenges, Lessons and New Technologies	47
4.2.2 Impact of feature proportion on matching performance of multi-biometric systems	49
4.2.3 Bag of soft biometrics for person identification new trends and challenges	51
4.2.4 Biometric Technology in Law Enforcement	54
4.3 Summary	55
Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations	56
5.1 Discussion	56
5.2 Conclusion	59
5.3 Recommendations	61
5.4 Linking Research with Objectives	63
5.5 Research Gaps	63
5.6 Future Scope of the Research	64
References	65
List of Tables
Table 3.1: Gantt Chart	46
List of Illustrations
Figure 2.1: Data Collection & Analysis Diagram	27
Figure 2.2: Biometric System Error Rates	32
Figure 2.3: Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve	32
Figure 2.4: Block Diagram of Fused Multimodal Biometric System	34
Chapter I: Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
The reported crime incidents are increasing worldwide, which is an intentional act of violence without any justification are continuously happening. Moreover, it is a deviation from the standard social norms where mainstreaming is essential to find the characteristics of the criminal person or a person of interest. Therefore, crime detection and their behavioral study are crucial and can assist in fighting against these anti-social behaviors. Several techniques are used in crime detection: anthropometry, forensic odontology, and dactyloscopy (Saini & Kapoor, 2016).
Various methods have been favored to date to identify the characteristics of the individual. Nevertheless, certain limitations are associated with these traditional methods, ranging from insufficient evidence to identity concealment. Apart from that, these are time-consuming processes and lack stable deserialization, making these processes inefficient in the successful detection of the criminals where the evidence can be removed. This can lead to closing a case without determining the criminal behind this. That is why there comes the need for computerization of these conventional method to provide accurate and reliable results. 
A fascinating method of solving crime is biometry, an automated way to establish techniques to identify criminals based on their physical and behavioral attributes. The physical characteristics include facial features, fingerprints, retina, and iris, whereas the behavioral details include signature, odor, voice and gait (Bouchrika, 2017).
The person's traces in the database are compared with the findings where ranking is done for the person. Besides, the traces may originate from the subdivision of people. Therefore, a biometric system efficiently recognizes the pattern where the individual's biological and behavioral data can be obtained. The task is accomplished by extracting the salient set of features, a comparison is made with the one set in the database.
The application of biometrics in a criminal investigation is an emerging field of study that is currently in practice but still lacks worldwide application due to its limited knowledge. Different types of biometrics system are being used to identify during the criminal investigation or POI in a particular case. It is done through fingerprints facial features, including face biometric, iris, retina, DNA, palm print, keystroke, odor biometrics, voice biometrics and gait biometrics (Jain & Ross, 2015).
However, due to certain limitations, the wide acceptance of such techniques is still not followed to its potential in the forensic field for criminal identification. Different positioning of the sensor, imaging condition difference, changes in the environment, noise and deformations are the underlying reasons, leading to the varied outcome where two samples of the same characteristics of different sessions can coincide.
A matching system is developed where the matching score indicates the similarity between the database's stored information. The input represents the chances of coinciding with the two samples of the same characters in different sessions. A multimodal biometric system integrates more than two biometric recognition systems for performance enhancement leading to efficient and precise identification, becoming more reliable than a unimodal biometric system (Jagadiswary & Saraswady, 2016).
Multimodal Biometric System integrate multiple features and are performed simultaneously. For example, integrating face and fingerprint recognition or even odor and voice biometric recognition and validation. It may enhance the individualization of each biometric sample. It brings about specific results with efficiency, which would not have been possible with a single one. It can eliminate the limitations and boundaries faced in unimodal biometric system and efficiently incorporate information from multiple origins or sources with a matching score level, also addressing, spoofing and non-universality (Jasserand-Breeman, 2019).
Deployment of this can be beneficial in identifying specific fake images being mimicked by illegal immigrants or terrorists. Japan, the USA, Australia and Hong Kong have already started applying multimodal biometric systems for the safety and security of their citizens and compatriots. This is a promising area of study, which has emerging benefits and applicability in the future in forensic investigations, as a sound justifiable advanced technology. Lastly, it can solve crucial and complicated criminal cases.
1.2 Problem Statement
The complication of the criminal investigation is rising with the twisted advancement of the criminals' mindsets and modus operandi to escape from being identified and receive punishment. This hampers the condition of the compatriots. For example, foreign or domestic terrorist attacks in countries have become a significant issue that has changed the whole system into restricted and highly monitored movements. If these terrorists and criminal behavior can be studied beforehand, it can lead to their identification and preventing large-scale tragedies from causing.
That is why it is an absolute necessity in this era to revolutionize the identification of suspects, which can deter future crime. Newer technologies have been developed for evidence collection, and biometrics is the most efficient field. It is a further technological advancement that can potentially overcome previously faced limitations within forensics. It is composed of conventional methods stemming from of anthropometry and physiognomy as well as technologic systems.
The implementation of multimodal biometrics enhances the accuracy of the samples, making it a reliable method for suspect identification. However, this system needs to be widely incorporated and applied. It necessitated the examination of different biometric systems and their use and proficiency to opt for a feasible solution based on the complexity of the incident.
Conversely, a unimodal biometric system can recognize and act on one particular physical or behavioral attribute; the multimodal biometric system can be significantly more efficient by utilizing multiple characteristics of a single person for authenticating purposes. The notable impact on the successful identification of the multimodal system initiates the need to develop this research, which will shed light on the insight of the effectiveness of multimodal biometric systems in investigations. 
1.3 Purpose, Objectives and Hypotheses of the Study
1.3.1 Research Purpose
This study aims to determine the efficiency of multimodal biometric systems in identifying the suspect or POI in a criminal investigation. It can provide critical clues for criminologists, the law enforcement system, investigation and ultimately the due process of other stakeholders involved.
1.3.2 Research Objectives
The objectives of this research are as follows:
· To assess the viability of biometric methods in crime investigation
· To determine the advantages of biometric methods over other methods such as physiognomy and anthropometry
· To determine the types of biometric methods that can be used effectively in criminal investigations to identify a person of interest
1.3.3 Research Hypotheses
Based on the objectives mentioned above, some testable hypotheses could be:
i. Biometrics significantly increases the chances of identifying a suspect or person of interest, in a criminal investigation, compared to previously used systems such as physiognomy and anthropometry.
ii. Multi-biometric systems, compared to generic biometric systems, are significantly more accurate in authenticating a suspect or person interested in a criminal investigation. 
iii. Physiological biometric modalities are significantly more reliable than behavioral biometric modalities for successfully and accurately identifying a criminal or person of interest.
1.4 Definition of Terms
1.4.1 Physiognomy
The study of physical attributes of individuals specifically for the determination of personality is a systematic manner. There is much application which is excellent antiquity where genetic flaws can be identified application during the ancient and the medieval times. It was known to assert a person’s temperament based on the physical appearances (Gernert, 2019).
1.4.2 Anthropometry
Measurements and ratios of human features and characters through a scientific approach for identifying the criminals are used by police and law enforcement agencies supplanted by fingerprints (Moorthy & Rasvini, 2017). The mug shot is one of the methods still used in criminal investigations, but better accurate advanced methods have been discovered over time.
1.4.3 Forensic Science
The implementation of scientific knowledge and scientific methods for criminal investigations and legal issues is known as forensic science, which is a multidisciplinary subject encompassing various fields, which require thorough knowledge regarding trace evidence, toolmarks, fingerprints, toxicology, molecular biology, firearms, entomology, handwriting, digital evidence, the work of DNA, screening of the biological etc. (Bell et al., 2018). The objective is to analyze and interpret the evidences that will lead to ultimately identify and prosecute the criminal (Saini & Kapoor, 2016). 
1.4.4 Sensor Module
A component of the biometric system is the sensor module, where the raw data of individuals are extracted by scanning and, through reading, the quality, which is influenced by the camera or device used that enhances the efficiency of the results.
1.4.5 Feature Extraction Module
The quality of the data, which is acquired from the individual, is subjected to a single algorithm for quality enhancement and is then processed for salient feature extraction for the representation of the underlying trait (Saini & Kapoor, 2016), which is stored in a database and is devoted as a sample against which comparison is being carried out.
1.4.6 Matching and Decision-Making Module
The already set database, which is used as a template and the collected data from the crime site, are being matched against each other. It is compared to known samples in an attempt to find a positive match. A matching score is derived, based on which the identity is validated or even ranked.
1.4.7 System Database Module
It is the system's storage where the features of the raw biometric data are stored along with biographical information for future use.
1.4.8 Identification
Biometrics work in two categories, the first is identification, where an individual is identified through the stored details in the database where a comparison of one to many is being made for proving the identity.
1.4.9 Verification
One-to-one comparison is being made in this verification stage where biometric information of a single person is being compared with the stored database template claiming the identity provisions (Krishnamoorthy, Rueda, Saad & Elmiligi, 2018).
1.4.10 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
It is the domestic intelligence security service in the United States, which helps support national security with a law enforcement authority. It is primarily a domestic agency, but they also maintain a significant international footprint (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2021).
1.4.11 Automated Biometric Identification System (IDENT)
Illegal entry into the country is prevented for the administration of the immigration benefits, facilitating legitimate travel and trade within the country biometrics is used (Jain, Hong & Pankanti, 2000). Biometric identification services are provided by homeland security through the Office of Biometric Identity Management (OBIM) that can support technological aspects for data storage, sharing and managing.
This system is called IDENT. It can hold 200 million unique recognition, and more than 300,000 biometric transactions take place each day. It is one of the largest repositories in the U.S. for sharing critical identification data with the defense and justice department to support homeland security. 
1.4.12 Homeland Advanced Recognition Technology (HART)
IDENT has been replaced with HART, the biometric system for the next generation, to minimize the operations and its impact on the OBIM partners (Thompson, 2019). 
1.4.13 Enhanced Functionality 
High capacity and enhanced transaction with improved efficiency can be provided by the HART that encompasses the biometrics of 500 million people. 
1.4.14 Eurodac Biometric System (European Dactyloscopy System) (EURODAC)
In Europe, this is the existing AFIS, which is the largest globally and serves up to 32 countries (Kuster & Tsianos, 2016). This European database contains the fingerprints of the E.U.'s asylums for each of its member states. In addition, it includes the fingerprints of the persons who irregularly cross the border. 
1.4.15 Entry / Exit System (EES)
With the EES the manual stamping of the passport will be replaced as well as electronic registration of the name. Type of travel documents, biometrics, date and place of exit and entry of the people of third countries visiting the Schengen for a short period will be done electronically. In this system, facial recognition will be of utmost importance. The European Council has adopted this. 
1.4.16 Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS)
It is a computerized database used for the following: for storage, identification, comparison, and exchange of fingerprint information previously analyzed and verified this is detained. Once a fingerprint sample positively matches to a suspect or a POI, it provides criminal history information, forbidden subject photographs and identifications of the individual's song with biographic information, which gives the FBI the essential support food the fast and accurate identification of the criminals with an improved digital image (Mokwele, 2016).
1.4.17 Next Generation Identification (NGI)
The Unimodal Fingerprint Biometrics System has advanced to palm print, voice, odor and facial recognition through harnessing the new technology for improving the application of latent fingerprints. The conventional system has been replaced with Next Generation Identification (NGI), which provides the most efficient biometric and criminal history information (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2021). This system was created to function as a platform for implementing multimodal functions due to new technological advances in identification and investigative capabilities.
1.4.18 Combined DNA Index System (CODIS)
A blending of forensic science and computer technology for establishing a link in violent crimes enables the federal, state and local labs to exchange DNA profiles through electronic media. Using the National DNA Index System of CODIS, the National Missing Persons DNA Database (NDIS) helps identify the missing and unidentified individuals (Rodovalho et al., 2015).
The use of DNA profiles in solving crimes has become one of the significant tools for the law enforcement agencies that are effectively helping in matching case evidence to other previously unrelated cases or to persons already convicted of specific crimes. It consists of a system of Hierarchy of DNA indexes at the multiple levels which are uploaded in the DNA profiles of the national index maintained by FBI. The Laboratories participate and performs DNA testing on samples from crime scene evidences and as on samples from offenders convicted of specific crimes. 
1.4.19 Foreign Biometric Exchange (FBE) Program
The prime objective of this program is to collect high-value biometrics from the partners involved in law enforcement and the purpose is to correlate POI or suspecting of any terrorist activity or crimes involving transnational actions is the prime objective of this program.
1.4.20 Quick Capture Platform
Rapid identification services are provided by deploying a team that can support national and international critical events within four hours through electronic fingerprint capture devices and query and support of criminal fingerprint databases.
1.4.21 Flyaway Program
It quickly determines the location of the suspected individuals internationally and domestically by incorporating an MBA scanner. This allows the FBI agents with advanced QCP kits for conducive field operations. This scanner can be operated through Smartphone.
1.4.22 Preventing and Combating Serious Crime (PCSC) Initiative
The initiative is an agreement where partner nations enter to share the criminal and terrorist biometrics with the U.S. Here connectivity between the U.S. and the partner nation is provided through the Criminal Justice Information Service Division.
1.4.23 Criminal History Record Information (CHRI)
The summary of a person, which is the crime record of that person kept with the law enforcement agency, provides all the details of convictions, sentences, arrests and parole violations that that individual has committed. The criminal justice agencies collect this information on individuals (Rauner & Maki, 2016).
1.4.24 National Missing Persons DNA Database (NDIS)
This system keeps the record of the DNA profile inputs by the criminal justice agencies, which involves the state and the law enforcement agencies, which are stored electronically and matched and searched for when required (Murphy & Tong, 2020). It is the national storage of DNA reports, which helps track and locate the criminals or the person of interest. 
1.5 Limitations of the Study
The study's primary limitation has been the formative lack of preliminary data that would have otherwise increased the research proficiency. Other limitations have been that mainly these parameters used for biometric research lack big free data. 
1.6 Summary of Remaining Chapters
A criminal investigation has become an important aspect. Forensic science plays a significant role in this multidisciplinary subject, where the videos are identified and analyzed to determine the criminal or the person of interest. This chapter summarizes the primary rationale for conducting this research with a proper presentation of the objectives and limitations of this study. In the following chapters, the existing literature about the topic has been discussed, and will shed light and insight into the contribution of biometrics in investigating and identifying criminals.
Apart from that, the research methodology has been declared, and the results will be discussed to reach a conclusion, which can help answer the research questions. Furthermore, there have been suggestions based on the findings of this research for further strengthening of the existing biometric system, which can help in better identification of the criminals.
Chapter II: Literature Review
2.1 Criminal Investigation
A branch of applied science includes the study of the evidence, which is used to recognize the guilty individuals, which undershorts different processes of interrogations, evidence and protection. The criminal responsible for the occurrence of a crime is identified, tracked and located (Hess, Orthmann & Cho, 2016). However, for a successful determination of the criminal, there should be a golden rule, which needs to be followed, that is not using or altering any object at the crime scene.
It might render the whole process inefficient. There is a consumption process among the executives, agencies, supervisor panel, police personnel and law enforcement agencies involved in the investigation. The combined effort of all these stakeholders is put together to form an approach in order to, which can help determine the exact suspect identification. 
Forensic science is the element of crucial justice, which analyzes the evidence found in the crime scene to develop findings that can help assist the investigation process and save innocent people from getting harassed. The forensic departments play a vital role where precise information is provided for determining and recognizing the cult print involved in the case through various clues left behind at the crime scene (Ram, Guerrini & McGuire, 2018). As one cannot be charged with invalid evidence against the person, the apprehension of a suspect requires predetermination and precise analysis of the evidence and finding out clues, which can assist in capturing the culprit, which can prevent further occurrence of the crime. Evidence that fails to be legally binding against a person will lead dismissal of the arc.  
2.2 Conventional Methods of Investigation
The efficient identification, collection of notes, sketching and photographs and capturing videos of the crime site, preservation of physical signs and symptoms such as footprints, fibers, shoe impression and the weapons and other related biological evidence such as DNA, bodily fluids, skin and bone materials are used in the forensic technique for the criminal determination (Iqbal, Ekstedt & Alobaidli, 2017).
This evidence is then subjected to analysis scientifically in the laboratory, where forensic evidence is created that is considered for further investigation by the court. Finally, this evidence is presented as proof of identifying an individual who has committed the crime without any defense or justification. In conventional methods, these are used along with anthropometry, Odontology, Document examination and dactyloscopy, where the physical characteristics for the determination of the individuals are being done. 
2.3 Limitation of Conventional Methods
There are particular challenges with these conventional methods that the forensic science departments are facing, hindering the progress in this department and hence in closing a case without identifying the criminal.
2.3.1 Insufficient Evidence: 
The presence of a small amount of physical or biological proof in the crime scene is a challenging factor the crime investigator faces (Sudarmaji, 2019). It includes but is not limited to fragmented evidence such as shoe prints, hand, fingerprints, dental features, bite mark impressions, tongue prints and unnoticeable paint scratch, partial fire marks, degraded body fluid samples due to an extended time passing. 
2.3.2 Concealment of Identity: 
The concealing of the true origin by the mastermind who has committed any crime leads to no identification of the actual person. That is why the specific properties are studied due to a lack of evidence (Suchotzki, De Houwer, Kleinberg & Verschuere, 2018).
2.3.3 Time Consuming Process: 
The conventional methods are lengthy and complicated. The identification, verification, analysis, and comparison take a long time; within this period, the suspect may flee to other areas or even produce concealment strategies, making the whole process inefficient.
2.3.4 Problem with Standardization: 
The limitations of the cognitive abilities of the forensic experts for handling large amounts of data and lack of the standardization of the investigation procedure become tedious, creating another barrier for successful identification of the person of interest (Sunde, 2020). 
2.4 Incorporation of Biometrics in Criminal Investigation
Traditional methods can lead to an automate delay in the whole investigate process and often involve a high level of expenditure, and that is why it is needed for the automation of the process to provide precise, timely and reliable results with fewer complications (Smith, Mann & Urbas, 2018). Here, is where the incorporation of new technology and tool can mitigate these challenges and provide accurate detection results with precise information.
Biometrics is a fascinating alternative for the conventional method of crime detection where an automated manner, the entity if a person is established based on physical and behavioral characteristics. The physical attributes include fingerprint, finger geometry, iris, retina and ear or palm print, whereas the behavioral details include the voice, odor, signature and gait. The correlation of the traces found at the crime site and by matching is entered into the database known as a template that were previously stored biometrics can efficiently contribute towards the criminal investigation (Pungila & Negru, 2018). 
Biometrics is a pattern recognition system where the attributes are collected from the suspected individuals, and comparison is made against the salient features stored in the database. The criminal is ultimately identified through the sensor module, quality assessment, feature extraction module, decision-making and system database module. This system was first established in the 1960s when the automated identification process took place based on ten-print cards. 
Afterward, in the 1980s, DNA profiling was innovated where identification of a person could be made based on the DNA reference through a computerized version (Dey, Tharmavaram, Pandey, Rawtani & Mustansar Hussain, 2020). Hence, with the gradual development of the telecommunication method and the camera surveillance technology, gait and face recognition were also incorporated into biometrics in 1990. Then in 2001, there was the development of biometric modalities such as body measurements, clothing characteristics, skin color and hair type and gender identification.
2.5 Characteristics of Biometrics
Various issues need to be considered based on which the selection of the biometric trait is decided, which are essential besides the matching criteria, and those seven factors are mentioned.
Uniqueness: The trait must be distinctive across the population. 
Universality: That trait would be used by all individuals using the biometric application. 
Permanence: The biometric trait should not be subjected to rapid change over the period. 
Measurability: There should be ease of digitalization without causing inconvenience, which would also be amenable for further extraction processes.

Biometrics significantly increase the chances of identifying a suspect or person of interest, in a criminal investigation, compared to previously used systems such as physiognomy and anthropometry....

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