In the Vallerand and Losier paper they use a model to describe how social factors influence motivation. Create your own motivational sequence which includes factors, other than the social factors they describe, and explain how you hypothesis they would impact motivation. So, for example, rather than the social factors (success/failure, cooperation/competition, and coaches behaviour), you may highlightinjuryas a factor. From there, you might hypothesize that in most circumstances injuries would result in lowered levels of competence (can't train), reduced autonomy (not feeling in control) and reduced relatedness (not able to see teammates). From there, you might hypothesize that the athlete would experience amotivation. You could also suggest that athletes may suffer from negative affect, no change in sportsmanship and no change in persistence.
An Integrative Analysis of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport ROBERT J. VALLERAND GAETAN E LOSER The purpose of this paper is to propose a motivational sequence that integrates much of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation literature in sport. The proposed motivational sequence: "Social Factors + Psychological Mediators + Types of Motikation + Consequences" I s in line with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan. 1985. 1991 ) and the Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation IValierand. 1997). Using the sequence, it i n first shown that the motivational im- pact o f social factors inherent in sport, such as conipetitiodcooperation, success/ failure. and coaches' behaviors toward athletes, takes place through their influence on athletes' perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (i.e., the psy- chological mediators). Second. recent results are provided with respect to a new multidimensional measure (ix.. the Sport Motivation Scale: Pelletier et al., 1995) to assess the different types of athletes' motives. Third. we review findings that suggest rhat such sport motives lead to various consequences for the athlete (e.g.. Robert J . Vallerand. Ph.D.. Research Laboratory on Social Behavior, Department of Psy- chology. ITniversity of Quebec at Montreal, PO Box 8888. Station "A", Montreal, Qc. Canada. H3C 3P8. Tel.: (514) 987-4836, FAX ( 5 14) 987-7953. e-mai1:Valler- and.rohertJ @ uclani .ca This paper is based in part on an invited address presented at the AAASP Convention, October 1992. Colorado Springs. CO. by the first author. Research reported in this article was conducted mhile the fir5t author was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. the Fonds pour la Formation des Chercheurs et I'Aide B la Recherche (FCAR-QuCbec), as well as the Universite du Quthec a Montreal, and while the second author was funded by the Universite de Moncton. We wish to thank three anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback of earlier versions of this article. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Robert J. Vallerand. Laboratoire de Recher- che SUT le Comportement Social. Dkpartement de Psychologie. UniversitC du Qutbec 1 MontrCal. PO Box. 8888. Station "Centre-ville," Montreal. Qc. Canada, H3C 3P8. E-mail: vallerand.robert-j @uqain.ca 142 IO1l-.1?Oo/~Y/O1.1?-016981.00/0 Cop5nght IYYY h! A\iociaiion for Ad\ancemenr of Applied Sport Psychology All nghic of reproduction In any ton" reserved. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN SPORT 143 affect, persistence, and sportspersonship). Finally, the paper concludes with sug- gestions for future research. Athletes face many great challenges in their quest for excellence in sport. Along the road toward peak performances, they face (among other things) numerous hours of training, rehabilitation from injuries, the stress and anxiety of competition, and the agony of defeat. Rising up to those challenges requires not only physical endurance and talent, but psycho- logical strength as well. It is thus not surprising that elite athletes and coaches alike underscore the importance of motivation in sport (Gould, 1982). Research reveals that athletes may be motivated out of two main types of motivation (Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 1987). On the one hand, they may be intrinsically motivated-that is they may engage in sport activities out of pleasure and fun. On the other hand, they may display extrinsic motivation-that is they may partake in sport in order to derive tangible benefits such as material (e.g., trophies) or social (e.g., prestige) rewards or to avoid punishment. We propose that the type of motivation that underlies athletes’ behavior is determined in part by various social factors present in the sport environment (Ryan, Vallerand, & Deci, 1984; Vallerand et al., 1987). Further, athletes’ motivation has a profound im- pact on the type of experiences that they will derive from their sport engagement (Vallerand & Perreault, in press). The purpose of this paper is to propose an integrative analysis of in- trinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport. Based on self-determination the- ory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991) and Vallerand’s (1997) Hierarchical mod- el of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, we propose a motivational se- quence that serves to integrate much of the literature on the determinants and consequences of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport. First, it is seen that social factors such as success and failure represent potent determinants of sport motivation. It will be seen, however, that the effects of these variables are mediated by athletes’ perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Second, a multidimensional perspective on sport motives is presented along with results of a recent measure of ath- letes’ motivation, namely the Sport Motivation Scale (Bribre et al., 1995; Pelletier et al., 1995). Third, we present a review of research findings concerning certain motivational consequences in sport. Finally, we con- clude the paper by suggesting future research avenues which should fur- ther our understanding on the role and implications of motivation for athletes. Before we begin reviewing these research developments, we briefly present self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991; Ryan, 1995) which serves as the the- oretical framework underlying much of the empirical work to be reviewed below. Motivation in Sport: The Self-Determination Paradigm Because motivation refers to the why of behavior (McClelland, 1985; Weiner, 1992), the reasons for doing an activity are generally perceived 1 4 4 VALLERAND AND LOSER as indicative of the person’s motivation toward a given activity. There may be different types of reasons for which athletes take part in sport, such as to seek new sensations, to attempt to master complex skills, or to conquer challenges, to name a few. In that respect, athletes are seeking certain goals (e.g., having fun, improving their performance, etc.) through their sport involvement. According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991), these goals are fueled by psychological needs. Three psychological needs are especially crucial in the energization of human action: the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci, 1992; Deci & Ryan. 1991; Ryan, 1995). The need for autonomy refers to the desire to be self-initiating in the regulation of one’s actions (decharms, 1968). On the other hand, the need for competence implies that individ- uals want to interact effectively with their environment (Harter, 1978; White, 1959). Finally, the need for relatedness pertains to the desire to feel connected with significant others (Richer & Vallerand, in press; Ryan, 1993). The concept of needs, as intended here, refers to elements deemed necessary to facilitate the growth and actualization of human potentiality (Ryan, 1993). This approach to the concept of needs is useful on both conceptual and applied grounds (see Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Deci et al., 1991 ). From a conceptual perspective, it is posited that since the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are important for personal growth and actualization, individuals are intrinsically motivated to move toward situations and experiences that will satisfy these basic needs. Of applied interest is the fact that the theory allows researchers to identify the social conditions most likely to facilitate motivation. Indeed, condi- tions that are perceived by individuals as providing opportunities to sat- isfy their needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness will also fa- cilitate their motivation. An important literature has evolved from this perspective and supports propositions from the theory in sport settings (Frederick & Ryan, 1995; Ryan, Vallerand, & Deci, 1984; Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 1987; Vallerand & Reid, 1990). According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991), the individual’s perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness rep- resent psychological mediators of the impact of social events on his or her motivation. Thus, social factors that are generally perceived as sup- portive of one’s feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness will have a positive impact on one’s motivation. Similarly, events that bear negative influences on individuals’ perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness will likely undermine their motivation. Furthermore, be- cause social conditions vary greatly, and also because individuals per- ceived them differently, people’s reasons for doing an activity will vary accordingly. Consequently, as we will see in a later section of the paper, different types of motivation may emerge from one’s experiences with a given activity and its social context. Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) also proposes that the resulting types of motivation will subsequently lead to various positive INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN SPORT 145 - SuccesFaUure - Coaches‘behavior - competnioncoqeranon - relatedness - lnttinslc mothration - ExltinskmotlvaUon - mntlfied regulauon - IntMected ngulaUon - external regulation -l Amotiiation H etc. Figure 1. diators, motivation, and consequences. The proposed motivational sequence involving social factors, psychological me- or negative consequences for the person, depending on the nature of his or her involvement in the activity. To the extent that the reasons for taking part in the activity are intrinsic, or at least express one’s choice, positive consequences should follow. However, negative consequences are ex- pected to ensue from non self-determined motives (e.g., feeling pressured to behave in certain ways). Incorporating elements from the self-determination perspective in the Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, Vallerand (1 997) recently proposed the following motivational sequence: “Social Factors + Psychological Mediators + Types of Motivation + Consequences.” Figure 1 depicts the model. It can be seen that social factors (e.g., success/ failure, cornpetitiodcooperation, coaches’ feedback, etc.) influence ath- letes’ perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness (i.e., the psy- chological mediators) which in turn determine their motivation. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation then lead to a host of consequences (e.g., affect, sportspersonship orientations, and persistence in sport). In the following three sections, we use this model to present findings from